of these points, the rules for the projection of which mechanically are simple and well established. The supposed transparent plane is called the plane of projection or plane of the picture. The horizon of the picture is the horizontal line resulting from the intersection of the plane of the picture by a horizontal plane passing through the eye. Point of view or point of sight is the point where the eye is supposed to be placed. Vanishing points are points in a picture to which all lines converge that are in the object parallel to each other. An object is said to be in parallel perspective when one of its sides is parallel to the plane of the picture-in angular perspective when none of its sides are so. Isometrical drawing implies that the measures of the representations of the lines forming the sides of each face are equal. The principle of isometrical projection consists in selecting for the plane of the projection one equally inclined to 3 principal axes at right angles to each other, so that all straight lines coincident or parallel to these axes are drawn in projection to the same scale. To draw a cube in isometrical projection, with a radius equal to one side of the cube, describe a circle, inscribe a regular hexagon, and connect alternate angles by lines to the centre; the hexagon will be divided into 4 quadrilaterals, each of which will represent a face of the cube; all the lines will be equal, and equal to the side of the cube. On these lines can be set off distances as in orthographic projection, but only upon these lines, or those parallel thereto. Curved or inclined lines are therefore to be established by reference to these lines, and not by direct measure of the lines themselves. Isometrical drawing is especially valuable to the mechanical draughtsman, embracing as it does the applicability of a scale with pictorial representation. In drawings for the patent office it is of very general application.Topographical drawing is the delineation of the surface of a locality, with the natural and artificial objects, as houses, roads, rivers, hills, &c., upon it, in their relative dimensions and positions; giving as it were in miniature a copy of the field, farm, district, &c., as it would be seen by the eye moving over it. Many of the objects thus to be represented can be defined by regular and mathematical lines, but many other objects, from their irregularity of outline and their insignificance in extent, would be very difficult to distinguish. Certain signs have therefore been adopted into general use among draughtsmen, some of which resemble in some degree the objects for which they stand, while others are purely conventional. Sand is represented by fine dots, gravel by coarser dots; meadow or grass line is represented by tufts of little perpendicular lines; trees, although not consonant with the other parts of the plan, are represented often in elevation, at other times by clumps of foliage in plan, sometimes distinctive in their foliage; dwellings and edifices usually in plan, made distinctive by some small prefix, as a pair of scales for a court house, a sign post for a tav

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ern, a horse shoe for a smithy, a church with a cross or steeple, &c. The localities of mines are represented by the signs of the planets which were anciently associated with various metals, and a black circle or dot for coal. Hills are represented by 2 methods, the vertical and the horizontal. In the first the strokes of the pen follow the course the water would take in running down the slopes, the strokes being made heavier the steeper the inclination; and systems have been proposed and used by which the inclination is defined by the comparative thickness of the line and the intervening spaces. In the system proposed for the U. S. coast survey, slopes of 75° are represented by a proportion of black to white of 9 to 2, and so down by 9 grades to a slope of 230, in which the proportion is 1 black to 10 white. By the horizontal method, or by contours, hills are represented by horizontal lines traced round them, such as would be shown on the ground by water rising by equal vertical stages. The choice of a scale for a plot depends in a great measure on the purpose for which the plan is intended. Plans of house lots are usually named as being so many feet to the inch, plots of surveys so many chains to the inch, maps or surveys of states so many miles to the inch, and maps of railway surveys as so many feet to the inch, or so many inches to the mile. In the U. S. coast survey all the scales are expressed fractionally and decimally. The scales of small harbor charts vary from 1: 5,000 to 1: 60,000; that of charts of bays and sounds is usually 1 to 80,000, of general coast charts 1 to 400,000. In the U. S. engineer service the following scales are prescribed: general plans of building, 1: 120; maps of ground with horizontal curves, 1 : 600; topograhical maps comprising 14 miles square, 1m. to 2 ft., or 1: 2,640; 3 miles square, 1 : 5,280; between 4 and 8 miles, 1: 10,560; 9 miles square, 1: 15,840; not exceeding 24 miles square, 1:31,680; 50 miles square, 1: 63,360; 100 miles square, 1: 126,720; surveys of roads and canals, 1: 600. In the plotting of sections, as of railway cuttings, a horizontal or base line is drawn, on which are laid off the stations or distances at which levels have been taken; at these points perpendiculars or ordinates are erected, and upon them are marked the heights of ground above base, and the marks are joined by straight lines. To express rock in a cut, it is generally represented by parallel inclined lines; rivers by horizontal lines, or better colored in blue; the depth of sounding in a mud bottom by a mass of dots. Since it would be in general inpossible to express the variations of the surface of the ground in the same scale as that adopted for the plan, it is usual to make the vertical scale larger than that of the horizontal lines in the proportion of 10 or 20 to 1.-Topographical features are represented as effectively by the brush and water colors as by the pen. Colors are used conventionally. Thus in the practice of the French military engineers, woods are represented by yellow, gamboge with a very little

indigo; grass land green, gamboge and indigo; cultivated land brown, lake, gamboge, and a little India ink or burnt sienna; adjoining fields are slightly varied in tint; gardens, by patches of green and brown; uncultivated land, marbled green and light brown; brush, brambles, &c., marbled green and yellow; vineyards, purple; sands, a light brown; lakes and rivers, a light blue; seas, a dark blue, with a little yellow added; roads, brown; hills, greenish brown. In addition to the conventional colors, a sort of imitation of the conventional signs already explained is introduced with the brush, and shadows are almost invariably introduced. Topographical drawings receive the light, the same as architectural and mechanical drawings, from the upper left hand corner. Hills are shaded, not as they would appear in nature, but on the conventional system of making the slopes darker in proportion to their steepness, the summit of the highest ranges being left white. Topographical drawings embrace but a small portion of surface, and are therefore plotted directly from measures; but in geographical maps, embracing at times a great extent of country, various projections are made use of to express as nearly as possible a spherical surface upon a plane. These species of projection are generally included under the head of mapping, and belong to the province of geography.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in Hartshill, or Harshull, in the parish of Atherston, Warwickshire, in 1563, died in 1631. His life is involved in obscurity. It is said that he was the son of a butcher, was a page to a person of rank, was maintained for some time at Oxford by Sir Henry Goodere, held a commission in the army, and witnessed the defeat of the Spanish armada; but none of these statements are well supported. In 1626 he was poet laureate. He found patrons in Sir Walter Aston and the earl of Dorset, but he never became wealthy or powerful, though respected for his virtues and talent. It is not easy to discover the order of his various poems, some of which were published without date. The best known is his "Poly-olbion," a descriptive poem on England, her legends, antiquities, and productions, the first 18 books of which were published in 1613, and the whole 30 in 1622. Among his other works are "Harmony of the Church, containing the spiritual Songs and holy Hymns of godly Men, Patriarchs, and Prophets" (4to., 1591, only one copy of which edition is known to exist; and 8vo., London, 1843, edited by Dyce); "Idea, the Shepherd's Garland, and Roland's Sacrifice to the Nine Muses" (4to., 1593), the second of which was reissued under the title of "Pastorals;" "Mortimeriados" (4to., 1596), reprinted under the title of the "Barons' Wars;" .99 66 England's Heroical Epistles" (8vo., 1598); the "Legend of Great Cromwell" (4to., 1607); "Battle of Agincourt" (folio, 1627); "Muses' Elysium" (4to., 1630); numerous legends, sonnets, &c., mostly printed in collections; and "Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy," edited

by Sir E. Brydges (Kent, 1814). The last is one of his most admirable productions. His historical poems are dignified, full of fine descriptions, and rich in true poetic spirit, and his "Poly-olbion " is moreover so accurate as to be quoted as authority by antiquaries. Notes to the first portion of it were written by Selden. He was buried in Westminster abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. An edition of his works, with a historical essay on his life and writings, was published in 1752-'3 (4 vols. 8vo., London).

DRAYTON, WILLIAM, LL.D., an American judge, born in the province of South Carolina in 1733, died in June, 1790. He was educated for the bar in the Middle Temple, London, where he studied 4 years. He returned to America in 1754, and was appointed chief justice in the province of East Florida in 1768: During the war of the revolution he was suspended from his office and reinstated in it, and went with his family for a time to England. After the peace he became successively judge of the admiralty court of South Carolina, associate justice of the state, and a judge under the federal government.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM, an American politician, a native of South Carolina, died in Philadelphia, May 24, 1846. Though a federalist in 1812, he held a commission in the army after the declaration of war. He was a representative in congress from South Carolina from 1825 to 1833, and in 1830 was a leader of the union party in opposition to that of nullification. He resided in Philadelphia many years prior to his death, and in 1839 succeeded Nicholas Biddle as president of the U. S. bank, the affairs of which he found it impossible to retrieve.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRY, an American statesman of the period of the revolution, born at Drayton hall, on Ashley river, S. C., in Sept. 1742, died in Philadelphia in Sept. 1799. He belonged to an influential family of South Carolina, and was educated in England at Westminster school, and at Baliol college, Oxford. Returning to America in 1764, he became an active writer on political affairs. In 1769 he published letters on the side of the government, which brought him into controversy with Christopher Gadsden and other patriotic leaders. In 1771, after revisiting England, he was appointed privy councillor for the province of South Carolina; but as the revolutionary crisis approached he espoused the popular cause, and protested against the proceedings of his colleagues. In 1774 he was appointed judge of the province, and when the continental congress was about to sit he published a pamphlet under the signature of "A Freeman," which substantially marked out the line of conduct pursued by the congress. Suspended from his offices under the crown, he was made a member of the popular committee of safety, and was prominent in advising the seizure of the provincial arsenals and British mails. In 1775 he was president of the provincial congress, and in 1776 was elected chief justice of South Carolina. He soon after de

livered an energetic charge to the grand jury on the question of independence, which was published throughout the colonies and had great influence. He had produced several other political charges and pamphlets, when in 1778 he was elected a delegate to the continental congress, of which he was a prominent member till his death. He left a minute narrative of the preliminary and current events of the revolution, which was prepared for the press and published by his son, Gov. John Drayton (2 vols. 8vo., Charleston, 1821).

DREAM, the series of thoughts which occupy the mind during sleep. The whole animal kingdom is characterized in its sensuous relations with the external world by two distinct, and, so far as the organs involving these relations are concerned, opposite conditions, the one of wakefulness, and the other of sleep. Within certain limits this alternation of action and repose presents itself as a general law of animal organization, more or less varied, according to the simpleness or complexity of the functions involved; and hence it is found that the quantity and regularity of sleep bear a close relation to the degree of development of animal life. To those vertebrata in which the muscular and nervous tissues exist in their most complete conditions, sleep is much more important than to those types of organic existence which, while endowed with some of the functions of animal organization, are for the most part devoted to the simple process of assimilation. Indeed, a point is at last reached where no evidence of the phe nomenon of sleep is presented. In man, in whom the voluntary and involuntary functions exist in their most complete development, and in whom their operations are complicated by the addition of those of the intellect, the periods of waking and repose are most fully marked, and their presence most important to the welfare of the individual. In sleep, the organs of sense, the power of voluntary motion, and the active powers of the mind suspend in a great degree their operation, in order to collect by rest new strength. The approach of sleep is announced by diminished activity of mind and loss of the power of attention. The senses become blunted to external impressions, and we feel an unconquerable desire for stillness and repose. Our ideas grow confused, our sensations obscure, our sight fails, hearing grows dull and uncertain, the eyelids close, the joints relax, and the body instinctively assumes an easy position. The vital activity, however, is in full vigor; the functions of the heart and the lungs, breathing and the circulation of the blood, continue, but are more calm and equable than during the waking season; the nutrition of the system, the secretion and absorption of the juices, are also carried on undisturbedly and perfectly. Hence sleep is not really a state of total inactivity, and only bears a very partial resemblance to death. A person awaking from profound sleep finds himself refreshed, and his bodily and intellectual functions restored to their usual vigor. If

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the sleep, however, be partial and disturbed, these results do not follow, but the waking state is accompanied by a sense of lassitude and fatigue. It is in this latter condition that dreams take place, and hence Dugald Stewart has properly defined dreaming to be that condition of sleep in which we have nearly or quite lost all volition over the bodily organs, but in which those mental powers necessary for volition retain a partial degree of activity. M. Perquin observed in the hospital of Montpellier in 1821 a case which throws considerable light upon the actual condition of the brain in profound sleep, and in that in which dreams occur. A female aged 26 had lost a portion of her scalp, skull bone, and dura mater, under an attack of malignant disease, by means of which a portion of the brain was exposed in such a manner as admitted of inspection. When this patient was in a dreamless state, or in profound sleep, her brain was motionless, and lay within the cranium. When the sleep was imperfect, and the mind was agitated by dreams, her brain moved and protruded from the cranium, forming a cerebral hernia. This protrusion was still greater whenever the dreams, as reported by herself, were most active, and when she was perfectly awake, especially if engaged in active or sprightly conversation, it attained its fullest development; nor did this protrusion occur in jerks, alternating with recessions, as if caused by arterial blood, but remained permanent while the conversation continued. It is clearly shown by this case, so far as the appearance of the brain is concerned, that during profound sleep the active state of the mental faculty ceases, but that, in that condition in which dreams occur, some of the mental powers are sufficiently active to excite a motion in the cerebral organs, less in degree than in a state of full wakefulness, but more than in a condition of profound sleep. Though the power of volition does not seem to be altogether absent in sleep, the will appears to lose its influence over those faculties of the mind and members of the body which during our waking hours are subject to its authority. Hence it may be inferred that all our mental operations which are independent of the will continue during sleep. The senses may be considered as the media by means of which the spirit within is brought in contact with the external world, and comes to have a knowledge of actual existence. Although the predisposing causes of dreams may be diverse, yet they are generally referable to some peculiar condition of the body, and are often called into action through the agency of the external senses. Dr. Gregory relates that, having occasion to apply a bottle of hot water to his feet upon retiring for the night, he dreamed that he was making a journey to Mount Etna, and found the heat insufferable. Dr. Reid, having had a blister applied to his head, dreamed that he was scalped by a party of Indians. M. Giron de Buzereingues made a series of experi ments to test how far he could determine his

dreams at will by operating upon the mind through the medium of the senses. With this view he left his knees uncovered on falling asleep, and dreamed that he was travelling at night in a diligence with a vivid impression of cold knees produced by the rigor of the weather. Waller relates the case of a gentleman who was ever after a victim to terror on account of a dream, which he could never look upon except as a real occurrence. He was lying in bed, and as he imagined quite awake, when he felt the distinct impression of a hand placed upon his shoulder, which produced such a state of alarm that he durst not move in bed. The shoulder which had experienced the impression had been uncovered, and the cold to which it was exposed produced the sensation. Persons in whom one of the senses is defective frequently have their dreams modified by this circumstance. Darwin relates the case of a deaf gentleman who in his dreams always appeared to converse by means of the fingers or in writing. He never had the impression of hearing speech, and for the same reason one who has been blind from his birth never dreams of visible objects. Sensations produced by the condition of the digestive apparatus have a very marked influence on the phenomena of dreams. When the functions of the digestive organs are properly performed, the dreams, if affected at all from this cause, are pleasant in their character; if however there exists any disturbance in this part of the system, the dreams are apt to assume a painful character, usually proportioned in intensity to the amount of disturbance of the alimentary canal. To this class of sensations may be referred those dreams produced by the use of opium and intoxicating drinks, which in part at least act by the impression made upon the digestive organs. Dreams induced by this latter cause are remarkable for the extravagance of the phantasmagoria they exhibit, frequently presenting shapes of the most fugitive and fanciful character. The dreamer often seems endowed with such elasticity that it appears as if he could easily mount to and float upon the clouds above him. De Quincey, in the "Confessions of an Opium Eater," has portrayed in the most vivid manner the effect of that narcotic in the production of dreams. "Under the connecting feeling of tropical heat and vertical sunlights I brought together all creatures, birds, beasts, reptiles, all trees and plants, usages and appearances, that are found in all tropical regions, and assembled them together in China and Hindostan. From kindred feelings I soon brought Egypt and all her gods under the same law. I was stared at, hooted at, grinned at, chattered at by monkeys, by parroquets, by cockatoos. I ran into pagodas, and was fixed for centuries at the summit or in the secret rooms. I was the idol, I was the priest. I was worshipped, I was sacrificed. I fled from the wrath of Brahma through all the forests of Asia. Vishnu hated me, Seeva lay in wait for me. I came suddenly upon Isis and Osiris. I had done a deed, they said, at which the ibis

and the crocodile trembled. I was buried for 1,000 years in stone coffins with mummies and sphinxes, in narrow chambers at the heart of eternal pyramids. I was kissed with cancerous kisses by crocodiles, and lay confounded with unutterable slimy things among reeds and Nilotic mud." In these hallucinations it will be observed how completely all ordinary ideas of time and space are annihilated. Indeed, De Quincey, in noticing this curious psychological phenomenon, says: "The sense of space, and in the end the sense of time, were both powerfully affected. Buildings, landscapes, &c., were exhibited in proportions so vast as the bodily eye is not fitted to receive. Space swelled and was amplified to an extent of unutterable infinity. This, however, did not disturb me so much as the expansion of time. I sometimes seemed to have lived for 70 or 100 years in a single night." Nor does it require the aid of a narcotic as powerful as opium, or indeed any thing beyond what ordinarily occurs in a state of dreaming, to create ideas of time and space apparently as incongruous as those narrated by the opium eater. The sleeper who is suddenly awakened by a loud rap does not begin and terminate his dream with this simple occurrence, but experiences a long train of events requiring hours and even days for their fulfilment, and which are all evidently occasioned by the sound which awakens him, and concentrated within the brief space of time it occupies. A person who was suddenly aroused from sleep by a few drops of water sprinkled in his face, dreamed of the events of an entire life in which happiness and sorrow were mingled, and which finally terminated with an altercation upon the borders of an extensive lake, into which his exasperated companion, after a considerable struggle, succeeded in plunging him. It is evident that the associa tion of ideas in this case which produced the lake, the altercation, and the sudden plunge, was occasioned by the water sprinkled upon the face, and the presumption is probable that the whole machinery of an entire life was due to the same cause. Dr. Abercrombie relates a similar case of a gentleman who dreamed that he had enlisted as a soldier, joined his regiment, deserted, was apprehended, carried back, tried, condemned to be shot, and was at last led out to execution. After the usual preparations a gun was fired, and he awoke with the report to discover that the cause of his disturbance was a noise in the adjacent room. Dreams are often produced by the waking associations which precede them; thus the writer had occasion to send a letter to a relative in a neighboring city, and upon retiring to rest dreamed that he was walking in the principal thoroughfare of the city where his correspondent resided, and accidentally meeting him, held a long conversation, upon subjects, however, in no way connected with the one which gave rise to the correspondence. So, too, dreams may be char acteristic of the peculiar idiosyncrasies of the dreamers: a miser will dream of his gold, a

philosopher of science, a merchant of his ventures, the musician of melody, and the lover of his mistress. Tartinia, a distinguished violin player, is said to have composed his "Devil's Sonata" under the inspiration of a dream, in which the devil appeared to him and invited him to a trial of skill upon his own instrument, which he accepted, and awoke with the music of the sonata so vividly impressed upon his mind that he had no difficulty in committing it to paper. In like manner Coleridge composed his poem "Kubla Khan" in a dream, of which the following is his account: "In the summer of 1797 the author, then in ill health, had retired to a lonely farm house between Porlock and Linton, on the Exmoor confines of Somerset and Devonshire. In consequence of a slight indisposition an anodyne had been prescribed, from the effects of which he fell asleep in his chair at the moment he was reading the following sentence, or words of the same substance, in Purchas's 'Pilgrimage': 'Here the Khan Kubla commanded a palace to be built and a stately garden thereunto, and thus 10 miles of fertile ground were enclosed within a wall.'" Coleridge continued for about 3 hours apparently in a profound sleep, during which he had the most vivid impression that he had composed between 200 and 300 lines. On awaking he had so distinct a remembrance of the whole that he seized his pen and wrote down the lines which are still preserved. Unfortunately, at this moment he was called out of the room to attend to some business which occupied more than an hour. Upon his return he found to his surprise and chagrin that, although some vague idea of the vision was still present, yet, with the exception of some 8 or 10 scattered and fragmentary lines and images, the whole had been obliterated from his memory. Instances like the above occasionally occur where the mind in a state of waking is aided by the processes carried on during sleep, but these are rare. As a general rule dreams are wanting in toherence and unsubstantial in reasoning. Nothing is more common than for the mind in dreams to blend together objects and events which could not have an associated existence in reality. The faces of friends long since dead and events long since past rise before the mind with all the vividness of real existence, and fail to excite surprise by their incongruity because the mind views them without the association of ideas which in a waking state would place them at such a distance from the present that no cognizance could be taken of them except as very remote events. It is the absence of these associated ideas, which in a state of wakefulness fix the limits as to time and space of each fact of which the mind has a knowledge, that prevents any surprise at the occurrence of unusual events in dreams, and constitutes one of their most remarkable features. The popular belief that in dreams an insight is frequently given of coming events is shared by many well-informed persons, and is supposed to be corroborated by many re

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markable cases; from among them the following is selected. Mr. D., residing in Edinburgh, informed his aunt one evening of his intention to join a sailing party the next morning upon the firth of Forth. The lady retired to rest and dreamed repeatedly of seeing a boat sink and those on board drowning. When wakened she went to the bedside of her nephew, and with great difficulty obtained his promise to remain at home. In the afternoon a violent storm arose, the boat was upset, and all that were in it went to the bottom.-The earliest mention of dreams is in the Scriptures and in the poems of Homer, in both of which a supernatural origin is generally ascribed to them. By the ancients, indeed, dreams were almost universally regarded as coming from the other world, and from both good and evil sources. A great number of instances are on record in the Greek and Latin classics of remarkable dreams, which show how widely the faith in the spiritual nature of dreaming was disseminated. The night before the assassination of Julius Caesar, his wife Calphurnia dreamed that her husband fell bleeding across her knees. On the night that Attila died, the emperor Marcian at Constantinople dreamed that he saw the bow of the Hunnish conqueror broken asunder. Cicero relates a story of two Arcadians, who, travelling together, arrived at Megara and went to separate lodg ings, one of them to an inn, the other to a private house. In the course of the night the latter dreamed that his friend appeared to him and begged for help because the innkeeper was preparing to murder him. The dreamer awoke, but not considering the matter worthy of attention, went to sleep again. A second time his friend appeared, telling him that assistance would be too late, for the murder had already been committed. The murdered person also stated that his body had been put into a cart and covered with manure, and that an attempt would be made to take it out of the city the next morning. The dreamer awoke, went to the magistrates, had the cart searched, when the body was found and the murderer brought to justice. Dreams were even allowed to influence legislation. During the Marsian war (90 B. C.) the Roman senate ordered the temple of Juno Sospita to be rebuilt in consequence of a dream of Cecelia Metella, the wife of the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher. Some of the fathers of the Christian church attached considerable importance to dreams. Tertullian thought they came from God as one species of prophecy, though many dreams may be attributed to the agency of demons. He believed that future honors and dignities, medical remedies, thefts, and treasures had been occasionally revealed by dreams. St. Augustine relates a dream by which Gennadius, a Carthaginian physician, was convinced of the immortality of the soul, by the apparition to him in his sleep of a young man, who reasoned with him on the subject, and argued that as he could see when his bodily eyes were closed in sleep, so