EAGLE

brownish black; wings barred with white, and the tail coverts dull white barred with dusky; tail grayish white, with 16 narrow bars and a terminal band of blackish brown; the length is about 2 feet, and the extent of wings 4 feet, the bill 24 inches. It is found from Florida to Brazil, and it feeds with the turkey buzzards and carrion crows on carcasses; it has the habits of the vultures, with the additional power of carrying prey in its talons; beside carrion, it devours small reptiles and birds; it walks like the turkey buzzard. Its flight is rapid and graceful.-The eagle, in mythology, is the sacred bird of the Hindoo Vishnu and of the Greek Zeus. In the Roman ceremony of apotheosis an eagle ascended from the burning catafalco, and was believed to bear the soul of the deceased to Olympus. In the Scandinavian mythology, it is the bird of wisdom, and sits in the boughs of the tree yggdrasill.-The Etruscans were the first who adopted the eagle as the symbol of royal power, and bore its image as a standard at the head of their armies. From the time of Marius it was the principal emblem of the Roman republic, and the only standard of the legions. It was represented with outspread wings, and was usually of silver till the reign of Hadrian, who made it of gold. The double-headed eagle was in use among the Byzantine emperors, to indicate, it is said, their claim to the empire both of the East and the West; was adopted in the 14th century by the German emperors, and afterward appeared on the arms of Russia. The arms of Prussia were distinguished by the black eagle, and those of Poland by the white. The eagle is the emblematic device of the United States of America, is the badge of the order of the Cincinnati, and is figured on coins. Napoleon adopted it for the emblem of imperial France; it was not, however, represented in heraldic style, but in its natural form, with the thunderbolts of Jupiter. It was disused under the Bourbons, but was restored by a decree of Louis Napoleon (Jan. 1, 1852). The order of the white eagle was created in Poland by Ladislas the Short, in 1325, was renewed in 1706, and since 1831 has been united with the imperial orders of Russia. The order of the black eagle was founded in 1701 by Frederic I., the first king of Prussia, and is conferred upon princes of the royal family, members of foreign sovereign houses, and a few officers of state, to whom it gives personal nobility. The order of the red eagle, the second Prussian order in dignity, was founded in 1712 by the margrave George William of Baireuth, and was transferred with that principality to Prussia in 1792.

EAGLE, a gold coin of the United States, of the value of $10, first coined in 1795, as provided by the act of congress of April 2, 1792, of the fineness of 22 carats (9163 thousandths), and weighing 270 grains, thus containing 247 grains of pure gold. The silver dollar contained at the same time 3714 grains pure silver, the ratio of valuation of silver to gold being as 15 to 1. An ounce of pure gold being worth more than

15 of silver in Europe, our gold coins continued to be exported until the act of June 28, 1834, substituted the ratio of 16 to 1 by reducing the fineness of the eagle to 899 thousandths, and its weight to 258 grains, being 232 grains pure gold. By the act of Jan. 18, 1837, the fineness of the eagle, as of all the other coins, was raised to 900 thousandths, its weight remaining as before 258 grains, of which 23,33 were pure gold; and at these rates it continues to be coined.There are also a half eagle, first coined in 1795, a quarter eagle, first coined in 1796, and a double eagle, first coined in 1849.

EAR, the organ of hearing. Anatomists divide it into the external, the middle, and the internal ear. The first consists of the visible external organ, a cartilaginous and fleshy structure, of the form best adapted to collect the atmospheric vibrations, and the meatus or tubular opening leading to the tympanum. The tympanum is a firm fibrous membrane stretched across this opening, whose office, as its name implies, is to communicate vibrations like the head of a drum. The middle ear is a cavity about the form and size of a kidney bean; from its lower point a tubular opening descends to the posterior part of the mouth, and terminates in a trumpet-like expansion; this is usually called the Eustachian tube, and sometimes meatus auditorius internus. Across the middle ear is stretched a chain of 4 minute bones, connected with each other by cartilage and tendon. These are the malleus or mallet, the incus or anvil, the orbicularis or round bone, and the stapes or stirrup, each named from some fancied resemblance. The office of this chain, which is attached to the tympanum at one end, and to the membrane covering the foramen ovale at the other, is to transmit the vibrations of the air; to aid in this, they are controlled by 2 minute muscles, which render the 2 tympani tense. The whole of the middle ear, with these minute bones, is covered with mucous membrane, and when irritated, as by a cold, it secretes mucus very freely, and thus often induces temporary and partial deafness. The internal ear, also called the labyrinth, to which the external and middle ear are but the ante-rooms, consists of the vestibule, the 3 semicircular canals, and the cochlea. The vestibule is an irregular cavity shut out from the middle ear by the membrane covering the foramen ovale, and communicating with the semicircular canals by 5 openings, 2 of these canals being joined at one end. The cochlea, as its name implies, is a bony structure resembling in form a snail shell; internally it is divided by a lamina, bony, ligamentous, and muscular, into 2 cavities called the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani, which communicate at the top of the cochlea, in a curved channel called the modiolus. This modiolus has numerous orifices, through which pass the filaments of the auditory nerve. The whole internal ear is lined with a delicate serous membrane, which secretes a fluid called perilymph. Within the vestibule and the semicircular canals, we find the

membranous labyrinth; in the vestibule it consists of 2 membranous sacs, one called the utriculus, and the other the sacculus, communicating with each other and extending in slender tubes through the semicircular canals, of which they only occupy about one-third; in the vestibule and modiolus, these sacs receive the nervous filaments, and are thus connected with the serous membrane lining the labyrinth; but everywhere else they are free, and separated from it by the perilymph, while their internal surfaces secrete a similar fluid called endolymph. In the vestibular portion is found a crystalline powder, proved by chemical experiment to be carbonate of lime, and denominated otolithes; the office of this is supposed to be to communicate the vibrations to the nervous surfaces. The filaments of the auditory nerve terminate by loops, or minute points, in the sacculus, the utriculus, the ampullæ (the little membranous tubes which pass through the semicircular canals), and the lamina which divides the cochlea. In the process of hearing, the vibrations of the atmosphere, caused, we will say, by touching one of the keys of a piano, pass toward the ear, where they are collected and concentrated by its peculiar form and structure; thus concentrated, they pass along the canal to the tympanum, where they produce a vibration; this vibration is communicated by the little chain of bones we have described to the membrane covering the foramen ovale, by which it is passed to the fluid contents of the vestibule and to the sacs, and by the agitation of the otolithes it is transmitted to the nervous surface, which is expanded over the whole labyrinth, and produces the sensation of sound. The internal and middle ear are situated wholly within the temporal bone, which is here much thicker and harder than elsewhere, in order to protect the delicate and complicated structure from injury.-Under the head of DEAF AND DUMB We have spoken in general terms of the causes which induce deafness; but we may say here that while congenital deafness is usually the result of deficiency or malformation of some portion of the organ, thus preventing the transmission of the vibration or sound wave, accidental deafness usually arises from perforation of the tympanum by ulceration or otherwise; mucous secretion, the result of inflammation, clogging or thickening the membranes of the middle ear, or ulceration at tacking the little bones and causing their discharge; inflammation of the serous membrane of the labyrinth, or paralysis of the auditory nerve. As may be supposed, the cure of complete deafness is exceedingly rare, and most of the cases reported will be found on examination either not to have been cured, or not to have been of persons entirely deaf.-The sense of hearing, like most of the senses, is capable of a much higher cultivation than is generally given to it. The blind, to whom touch and hearing make up in part for the loss of vision, acquire remarkable powers of hearing. They will hear a footstep or the opening of a door, at

a distance at which ordinary persons cannot distinguish a sound. The Indian, too, possesses extraordinary powers in this respect; applying his ear to the earth, he will discover the ap proach of an enemy, and obtain some idea of his numbers, long before the eye can detect his coming. In almost all brain affections, there is more or less morbid sensitiveness of hearing; and in that condition of the nervous system brought on by long continued and intense excitement, and which often terminates in insanity, the same phenomenon is observed.-The form of the external ear varies materially in different races of men, and still more in the animal tribes. In the Caucasian race it is of moderate size, well formed, and neither very prominent nor pressed closely to the head. În the Malay and Mongolian it is large, ill proportioned, the lobe naturally long, and the whole ear standing out prominently; in the Indian race the conformation is similar to the Mongolian, though less prominent; in the negro the ear is flat, broad, and adheres so closely to the head as to give the idea of having been fastened there by a bandage. Of the inferior animals, the mammalia only have an external ear; in birds it is merely a small orifice; in fishes, when it exists, it is covered by the skin, as it is also in reptiles. The variety in its form in mammals extends even to different varieties of the same animal. The drooping ear of the King Charles and other spaniels contrasts forcibly with the erect prominent ear of the foxhound and the Esquimaux dog; and both differ greatly from the short open ear of the bull-dog. The horse has a sensitive and well formed ear, though of small size; while the ass, with no better powers of hearing, is supplied with long aural appendages which seem most adapted for fans. The elephant has a small ear as compared with his great size, though the flap of skin which protects it is of considerable dimensions. The carnivora generally have small but very quick ears, and they usually possess erectile power which enables them to throw them into shapes in which they will most readily catch the sound wave. The mole, though his ear is hardly discernible in the fine fur which covers it, is yet very quick of hearing. Of all the mammals, the bat tribe possess the largest ears in proportion to the size of their bodies, the phyllostonus and the megadenus in particular being provided with these appendages so large as to form nearly of the superficial extent of their bodies. Among savage and half-civilized tribes the idea prevails that the lengthening of the lobe of the ear by heavy ornaments, and the enlargement of the perforations made for attaching them, both add greatly to the beauty of the wearer. In the Burmese statues of Gaudama, he is represented in a sitting posture, and the lobes of his ears extend to the level of his lap. Among the African tribes the perforation in the ear is enlarged so that a stick an inch or more in diameter may be thrust through it, and some of them use the ear instead of a pocket to carry small articles.

EAR RINGS

EAR RINGS, a kind of ornament common both among savage and civilized peoples. They are alluded to in the earliest literature of both Asia and Europe, and are found represented upon remnants of sculpture older than any literature. They have been discovered amid the ruins of Thebes, in the tombs of Egyptian kings, and have been dug from Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Nineveh. Abraham, the father of the Hebrews, sent them as a present to his son's wife; Alexander, when he marched to the East, met with them in Babylon, and on the banks of the Indus; Cortes found them in use among the wealthy Mexicans; among the Greeks and Romans they were equally worn by noble ladies and serving maids; and in the later Christian civilization they have enjoyed a nearly universal prevalence. They are termed rings in the Hebrew and other ancient as well as the English and other modern languages, and their original form was doubtless a simple circlet. Among the oriental nations, the Hebrews excepted, they were worn by both sexes, and though at first of gold or silver, were subsequently made with agate, chalcedony, onyx, coral, and pearls. They were sometimes single hoops of gold from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, but were more frequently jewelled drops or pendants of various styles, hung from a small ring inserted in the ear. Even at the present day the finest ear rings in the world are in the harems of the East, and European princesses in devising this ornament have been unable to excel the taste of Persian maidens and of the slaves of the sultan. The use of ear rings among the Greeks and Romans was confined chiefly to women. The favorite style was a pendant, framed of gold and set with precious stones. Pearls were valued for being exactly spherical and for their delicate whiteness; and 2 or 3 of them were generally joined together to elongate a single drop, and 2 or 3 such drops were often suspended from a single ring. In the Iliad, Juno, adorning herself in her richest and most captivating attire, puts on ear rings made with 3 drops resembling mulberries; and in the Odyssey the splendid present which Eurydamus sends to Penelope is a set of ear rings of a similar style. The Venus de' Medici has the ears pierced, and probably there were once ear rings in them. At Rome the precious stones came especially into use for this ornament, and in the progress of luxury under the emperors the Roman matrons, according to Seneca, often carried suspended from their ears the worth of 2 or 3 rich patrimonies. The pendants were sometimes made to resemble a series of nuts, or were adorned with figures of centaurs or horses, or marine animals, and were so arranged as to vibrate against each other upon every motion of the head, and thus to produce a constant gentle tinkling. Instead of a ring, a hook was often used to attach the ornament to the ear, and the women of Italy still continue this practice, passing the hook through the lobe of the ear without any other fastening. One of the most famous of modern ear rings was

the property of a Polish lady, and consisted of a series of diamonds, arranged so as to represent an acacia blossom, the setting being made to resemble a leaf of the same tree. The lotus blossom and the Bengal rose were sometimes copied in Egyptian and Indian ear rings, and the Chinese women wear ear rings resembling the fantastic flora of their country. Roman ladies of the highest rank sometimes wore this ornament in the shape of an asp, whose body was of gold set with precious stones; and among the women of South America it is often made to resemble a humming bird. Both among the ancients and moderns ear rings have sometimes borne miniature likenesses of friends. In recent times they have very generally been supposed to be beneficial to the health, and especially to be a protection against weakness of the eyes, and in this belief they are still frequently worn by men in France and Italy, and sometimes also in the United States, and are common among boys in Germany.

EAR TRUMPET. Under this title may be included all those contrivances intended to aid the hearing of persons partially deaf. We have no means of ascertaining at what period or by whom ear trumpets were invented. The practice of putting the hand to the ear in a trumpet shape probably first suggested it, and from occasional allusions to the use of the trumpet in old writers it would seem to have been of very early origin. The earliest form of which we have any knowledge was a rude imitation on an exaggerated scale of the form of the external ear; but as this was found inconvenient from the difficulty of retaining it in place, a form more nearly resembling a speaking trumpet was substituted. As this again was found inconvenient from the space it occupied and the difficulty of supporting it in position, a curved form was substituted, descending from the ear close to the side of the face and presenting the trumpet-shaped mouth upward. Another modification was a flat tube passing over the head and applied to each ear, while in front and immediately over the forehead was an opening to receive the sound. Another inventor, having observed that in listening intently people opened their mouths, contrived a sort of plectrum or vibrating body to be held between the teeth, and thus to convey sounds by the Eustachian tube. After the introduction of caoutchouc and gutta percha into the arts, a long tube of one or other of these materials, with a bell-shaped trumpet at the end, took the place of the metallic trumpet, and for many purposes is very convenient. In England in some of the churches pews are constructed with tubes to conduct the sound, opening in convenient positions for the ear of the listener. Among the more recent inventions for facilitating hearing are the auricle, a small tube of silver with a semiglobular expansion, intended to be inserted into the meatus of the ear; and the tympanum, a small thin disk of rubber, having a silver wire passing through it to transmit the sound wave. In a few cases

the latter has been of considerable service. In cases of total deafness, no such means are of any advantage.

EARL, the most ancient title of nobility used in Great Britain. Under the early Saxon kings the powerful nobles to whose charge shires or territories had been committed were called caldormen, literally elder men (whence the modern alderman), a term equivalent to the Latin senior or senator, and given in Latin documents as princeps, dux, or comes. The Danes subsequently applied the term eorle, which signified originally a man of noble birth, as opposed to the ceorl or churl, to the same men who had borne the title of ealdormen. The Saxon earl derived his title solely from his office, which was originally in the gift of the crown, and in recompense for his services received a part of the revenues of his province to his own use. Toward the close of the Saxon dynasty these provincial governors not only greatly enlarged their authority, but claimed the dignity as he reditary; and in the time of Edward the Confessor the whole kingdoni was divided between 5 powerful earls, including Godwin and his sons Harold and Tosti, of whom Harold subsequently usurped the throne. After the Norman conquest the territorial possessions of the Saxon nobility were declared forfeited, and with many newly created fiefs were distributed among the chief followers of William the Conqueror, who thereupon assumed the name of counts, from the Latin comes. But this title was very soon replaced by the old one of earl, while the territory from which the new dignitary received his name or over which he exercised jurisdiction was thenceforth called a county, instead of a shire as previously under the Saxons, and the consort of the earl became a countess. According to Cruise, there were 3 sorts of earldoms under the early Norman kings: the first and highest, where the dignity was annexed to the possession of a whole county, with the jura regalia, in which case the county became a county palatine, and the person created earl of it exercised all the authority of a sovereign; the next, where the earl was entitled to the third part of the revenues of the county court; and the third, where a tract of land was erected into a county and granted with civil and criminal jurisdiction to be held per servitium unius comitatus. This statement, however, is open to controversy, and Sir Harris Nicolas is of opinion that the Norman earls, excepting in the counties palatine, possessed no jurisdiction over the counties from which they were denominated, the dignity being of a nature altogether personal. At present the title conveys no local jurisdiction or revenue, and is no longer confined to the names of counties, but may be derived from those of towns or villages, or of families. It remained the highest hereditary dignity in England until the reign of Edward III., when the first dukedom was created, and is now the 3d order of the British nobility, being next below that of marquis, and above that of viscount.

After the barons the earls are also the most numerous of any order, numbering (in 1859) 234, of whom 47 have Scottish and 68 Irish titles. They are styled by the sovereign "right trusty and well beloved cousin," an appellation attributed to Henry IV., who had his own reasons for flattering the powerful earls, with nearly all of whom he is said to have been allied by birth or marriage, by frequent allusions to the relationship. They are now created by letters patent, in place of the old practice by which the sovereign girded on the sword of the new earl and invested him with mantle and coronet.

EARL MARSHAL, an officer of state in England, who directs important ceremonies, takes cognizance of matters relating to honor, arms, and pedigree, and proclaims the declaration of war or of peace. The office was established in the reign of Richard II., who conferred it upon Thomas Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, and is now hereditary in the family of Howard, the head of which, the duke of Norfolk, is the present earl marshal of England.

EARLE, PLINY, an American inventor, born in Leicester, Mass., Dec. 17, 1762, died there, Nov. 19, 1832. In 1785 he became connected with Mr. Edmu Snow in the manufacture of machine and hand cards for carding cotton and wool; and in 1790, when Mr. Samuel Slater, the originator of cotton factories in this country, was establishing his first factory at Pawtucket, he applied to Mr. Earle to furnish him with what are technically termed twilled cards, all the cards then manufactured in this country being plain. Mr. Earle at first made these by hand, but soon invented the machine still in use for their manufacture, by which the labor of a man for 15 hours could be performed in as many minutes. Aside from his inventive genius, Mr. Earle deserves a record for his extensive attainments in science and literature.-PLINY, an American physician, son of the preceding, born in Leicester, Mass., Dec. 31, 1809., He was educated at the Friends' yearly meeting boarding school at Providence, R. I., where he was subsequently employed as a teacher. He received his diploma of M.D. in 1837, after which he spent 3 months in London and a year in Paris, and some 10 months more in travel, returning to Philadelphia in 1839. In 1840 he was appointed resident physician of the insane hospital at Frankford, Penn., under the care of the Friends, where he remained a little more than 2 years. In 1844 he was appointed physician to the asylum for the insane at Bloomingdale, N. Y., where he remained till April, 1849, when he visited the insane hospitals of England, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Poland, and a part of those of France. In 1847 he declined an appoinment of visiting physician to the New York city lunatic asylum, but accepted it when again offered in 1853. He has been a somewhat voluminous writer, principally in the medical and scientific journals and the “Journal of Insanity." In 1841 he published a small volume of poems entitled "Marathon and other Poems;" but fear