the most celebrated scholars, among whom were Plegmund, Werfrith, Ethelstan, Werwulf, Asser of St. David's, Grimbald of St. Omer, John Scotus Erigena, and John of Old Saxony, who left the monastery of Corbie for that of Ethelingey; he made translations with his own hand into AngloSaxon from Bede, Boëthius, and Orosius; established schools in different parts of his kingdom; and ordained that the children of every free man whose circumstances would allow it should acquire the arts of reading and writing, and that those designed for civil or ecclesiastical offices should be instructed in the Latin language. Yet his efforts in behalf of learning were as unfruitful after his death as those of Charlemagne had been in France, and were succeeded by the mental torpor of the 10th century, in which, it has been remarked, no heresies appeared. Yet Germany at that time possessed many learned and virtuous churchmen. In the school of Paderborn not only the 7 liberal arts were taught, but also Homer and Virgil were read, and the arts of painting and versifying practised; and in that of Fulda, the pupils of Hrabanus Maurus, himself the most accomplished pupil of Alcuin, gave instruction with zeal and care to noble youth. But as learning was chiefly contained in a dead language in all the countries of Europe, it hardly reached the mass of the people; the art of writing was so rare among laymen that it was called the clerical art; paper was excessively dear, and ink was so scarce even two centuries later that Petrarch only after great difficulty succeeded in finding some in Liège.-The rise of the scholastic philosophy and of the troubadour poetry, the institution of universities, and the return to a profound study of the Greek and Latin classics, were the literary steps during and after the 11th century which preceded the revival of learning in the 14th and 15th centuries. Intercourse with the flourishing Arabian academies of Spain should also be mentioned, since many scholars, following the example of Gerbert, studied in them, and imported the sciences thence into France and England. It was through the Arabic mind that western philosophers first became acquainted with the complete works of Aristotle, and learned to prefer his dialectics to those of Augustine; and some suppose that the literary culture of Provence proceeded from contact with Arabic poets beyond the Pyrénées. Knighthood demanded a moral and physical rather than intellectual culture. The sons of gentlemen who were trained to this profession were brought up in the castles of great lords, instructed in exercises of strength and activity and in the management of arms, accustomed to obedience and a courteous demeanor to their lord and lady, and trained to enthusiastic and romantic views of valor, honor, love, and munificence. Many of the noblest knights could neither read nor write. The Provençal literature and society, founded on the principles and customs of chivalry, were a remarkable example of culture without learning. It is surpris

ing how little knowledge the troubadour poems presuppose; there is scarcely an allusion to history or mythology; and no references to foreign manners, or reminiscences of the sciences which had been taught in schools, are mingled with the simple effusions of sentiment. The fantastic solemnities styled courts of love and floral games, the serious discussion of ridiculous questions of metaphysical gallantry, the elaborately frivolous directions concerning the manners of either sex, are illustrations of a society without intellectual development, but highly and peculiarly disciplined in respect of the sentiments. From the 12th and 13th centuries, the era of the schoolmen, date 23 universities, including those of Paris, Montpellier, Oxford, Cambridge, Bologna, Salerno, Padua, Rome, Salamanca, and Lisbon. That of Bologna was especially famous for its revival of the civil law, and drew lawyers and students in large numbers to Lombardy from remote parts of Europe. Paris was unrivalled in the department of theology, and Montpellier in that of medicine. Roscellin and William of Champeaux were the first scholastic teachers who enjoyed brilliant success; and Abelard, the disciple of them both, attracted students by thousands to his lectures in Paris, fascinated the intellect of Christendom by a dialectic method, and awak ened mankind to a sympathy with intellectual excellence. Though he was involved in a controversy with Saint Bernard, and though some of his opinions were condemned by an ecclesiastical council, and he was therefore ordered to be confined in a cloister, yet his scholars followed him to his hermitage in the wilderness, and enlarged his little oratory to a cosmopolitan and studious monastery called the Paraclete. One of his pupils was Peter Lombard, the author of the "Book of Sentences," which obtained the highest authority. The ingenious subtleties of scholasticism were promoted by the schools of the mendicant orders, and the two greatest masters of the method, the champions of distinct systems, were the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the Franciscan Duns Scotus. The most determined opponents of the scholastics were the mystics, the promoters of piety rather than learning, the principal representatives of whom were St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas à Kempis, Tauler, and in his later years Gerson. The university students, notwithstanding the enthusiasm and attainments of some of them, were often subjects of satire. It was complained that they frequented eating and dancing houses, and strolled through the streets by night shouting and singing; that they went from university to university, not to increase their knowledge, but to be able to boast that they had studied at Paris, Bologna, or Pavia; and that they surrounded themselves with large libraries and paraded doctors' caps in order to win admiration for learning which they did not possess. The minor schools were said often to be badly conducted; the master was not sufficiently under the surveillance of

the bishop, and might be one of the numerous secular ecclesiastics, scholastici, scholares vagantes, bacchantes, or goliardi, who traversed Europe as adventurers, becoming curates, teachers, or sorcerers, according to occasion, foretelling eclipses, selling calendars and false relics, and defrauding the people in manifold ways. It was not uncommon for children to imitate the older students, passing from school to school in groups, begging, stealing, and singing before houses. Yet the rod played a prominent part in schools, and a vignette found in most of the medieval classical books represents a master holding it in hand. A festival of the rod was one of the holidays, when the boys and girls went together to the nearest forest for a bundle of birchen twigs, and returned singing a chant relative to the use which the master would make of them. During the period preceding the revival of learning female education declined. Only a few schools were maintained in the large cities for the instruction of girls in reading, and the inmates of convents were taught hardly more than to repeat their prayers and to practise embroidery and other needlework. A writer of the 13th century defines the proper education of woman as "knowing how to pray to God, to love man, to knit, and to sew." From the time when the ill-fated Heloise taught the sciences and the Greek and Latin classics to her nuns, till the latter part of the 15th century, western Europe furnishes no female name renowned for learning except that of Christina of Pisa.-When the Byzantine empire approached its fall, the Greek scholars who had there preserved some acquaintance with ancient learning took refuge in Italy, where the love of letters had been already awakened by the genius of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, and where industrious scholars under the patronage of princes were devoting their lives to the recovery of manuscripts and the revival of philology. Among those who at this period of the renaissance specially distinguished themselves as teachers, the most eminent was Victorino Rambaldoni (born in 1378), who conducted schools successively at Padua, Venice, and Mantua, attracting pupils from France, Germany, and Greece, but admitting only those of distinguished talents. He wrote nothing, but his sagacity and success in forming the character of students and in producing a harmonious and complete development made his name famous for centuries as an instructor. The right study of the classics he believed to be amply sufficient for all the purposes of education. Among Italian writers on education in the 15th century were Vergeri, Poggio Bracciolini, Vegi, and Eneas Sylvius, afterward Pope Pius II. From Italy the more profound study of classical authors passed to the other countries of Europe, and a contest was long maintained between the scholastic and the antischolastic studies; between the Aristotelians, who included the most learned ecclesiastics, and the Platonists, to whom were attached most of the cultivators of polite literature. Agricola in VOL. VI.-49

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Germany, Valla in Italy, and above all Ramus in France, wrote against scholasticism. It was assailed by the reformers and defended by the Jesuits, and is still in honor in some of the Spanish universities. Purbach, Regiomontanus, and Nicholas Casanus were the first to promote the study of the higher mathematics. Nicholas de Clemengis and Gregorius Tifernas revived the classical taste in France, Vitelli and Coilet in England, Lebrixa in Spain, and Reuchlin in Germany. The pious "Brethren of the Common Life," whose first school was founded by Gerard de Groot at Deventer in 1340, also exerted a wide influence. Their schools were extended throughout the Netherlands and Germany, were distinguished alike for piety and solid acquirements, and attracted students even from Italy. From them proceeded Thomas à Kempis, and many who were afterward celebrated as reformers. In 1483 a severe and almost barbarous discipline was ordained in the college of Montaigu, combining labor, fasting, and pitiless punishments. Yet among the students who in a few years proceeded from this school were Erasmus, Loyola, and Calvin. Erasmus, with polished jests admirable for their esprit and learning, seemed to revive the ancient Attic wit, and exerted a refreshing influence on letters. The golden age of the literature of Belgium was that of Albert and Isabella in the first quarter of the 17th century, in which the triumph of the renaissance was completed. The university of Louvain was the centre of a wide intellectual culture, and the alma mater of many celebrities. Its European reputation increased till in 1570 it had 8,000 students.-Education and the doctrines concerning it played an important part in the movements of the Protestant reformers, and also in the reaction in favor of the papacy under the Jesuits. The revival of intellectual culture among the people was associated in the mind of Luther with religious reform, and in 1528 with the aid of Melanchthon he drew up the plan of studies which was followed in the Protestant common schools of Germany till the close of the century. The first class learned to read, to repeat from memory a few distichs, to write, and to sing, and began the study of Latin. The second class studied Latin, grammar, and music for an hour daily, read and interpreted the fables of Æsop, the padologia of Mosellanus, and the colloquies of Erasmus, and committed to memory parts of Terence and Plautus, and some of the psalms and other portions of Scripture. A Latin and a German sentence were repeated to the students on their departure at night, which they were to know by heart on the following day. The third class advanced to the Latin poets, and to exercises in dialectics and rhetoric, and were required to speak in Latin, and to write an exercise in that language weekly. Luther also assailed the Aristotelianism and scholastic methods which prevailed in the universities, and recommended the establishment of libraries in every town. Education was in like manner encouraged by Zwin

gli and Calvin, the latter of whom caused the erection of a splendid edifice for the gymnasium of Geneva, to which 8 distinguished professors of Hebrew, Greek, philosophy, and theology were invited. About this time the gymnasium of Strasbourg under Johann Sturm became the most flourishing of the age, and in 1578 it had more than 1,000 students, 300 of whom were of noble or princely birth. Its best influence was in improving the taste, for Sturm taught the classical languages for their own merits, and not as auxiliaries to theology. He therefore banished from the school all writings in barbarous Latin, and urged children from the age of 7 years to speak with each other and their professors in choice Ciceronian phrases. He made them commit to memory select passages from the classics as they were translated to them, before the details of grammar had been mastered. Sturm was the friend and correspondent of Roger Ascham of England, one of the most learned men of the age, and the author of a treatise on the "Schoolmaster." The school of Trotzendorf, at Goldberg, was distinguished for the organization of its discipline, the forms of which were borrowed from the old Roman republic. He was the perpetual dictator, and beneath him were a censor, 2 consuls, and a senate of the 12 most advanced pupils. Every grave question was discussed before this senate, and was decided by it. The ancient crowns were revived for prizes, the best orator being rewarded in the manner of a victor at the Olympic games. Bugenhagen at Hamburg, Spalatin at Altenburg, Neander at Nordhausen, and Heyden at Nuremberg, were also among the most successful Protestant teachers of this period.-The Protestants having awakened a zeal for learning, the Jesuits determined to avail themselves of this zeal in the interest of the Catholic church, and to combat the reformation with its own weapon. They cultivated to the highest possible degree all departments of science, and employed the authority of learning in favor of the pontifical power. The principle of their method was to train the memory, the imagination, and the reasoning faculty, but to check all discursive mental habits. Latin and logic furnished most of the exercises by which the sentiments and tenets of Catholicism were instilled into the minds of youth. Of the classical Latin authors only Cicero and Virgil were used, the other Latin text books being medieval writers. Greek was taught only from the works of Chrysostom and other Christian fathers. Philosophy formed a part of the higher course, and was taught from Aristotle as interpreted by Aquinas. The polished and pleasing exterior of masters and students, the kindness apparent in the treatment of young persons, the tender care bestowed upon sick pupils, the pompous occasional celebrations, and the theatrical performances which were often made a school exercise, all contributed to the extraordinary success of the Jesuits as teachers. From Cologne, Ingolstadt, and Vienna, they spread between 1550 and 1560 throughout Ger

many. Opposed in France by the Sorbonne, the university, and the parliaments; they did not establish their first school in Paris till 1665, but in 1750 they had won from the ancient Benedictines their pedagogic laurels, and possessed in France 669 schools, which were attended by the children of the princes and nobles. Yet the education of females was much less cared for by them than by their opponents the Jansenists. The girls belonging to the upper classes connected with the society were educated religiously rather than learnedly in the numerous houses of the sisters of St. Ursula, or by the nuns of St. Angelica or St. Elizabeth.-Between the latter part of the 17th and the close of the 18th century, 4 distinct theories and methods of the pedagogic art arose, which are usually named the pietistic school, the humanistic school, the philanthropic school, and the eclectic school. Jansenius in France, the Wesleys in England, and especially Spener and Francke in Germany, were the first representatives of the pietistic tendency. The writings of Fénélon, the author of "Telemachus" and of a treatise on the education of girls, which still remains a standard work in France, exerted perhaps a similar influence. Spener was the teacher of Francke, who established a school at Halle for children of both sexes, and another for teachers, on the principle that religious and moral instruction should be made more prominent than intellectual acquirements, that the end of education should be a living knowledge of God and of pure Christianity. It was succeeded by similar schools in many other cities, and one of its early graduates was Count Zinzendorf. In Greek the New Testament was the only text book. Hebrew was one of the studies of the regular course, and a change of heart was declared essential to successful scholarship. Among the collaborators of Francke were Rambach, Freyer, Hoffmann, Büsching, and Steinmetz. The humanistic school maintained the principle that the ancient languages and literature, especially the Greek and Latin (which were termed the humanities), should be the foundation of education, and should be exclusively studied till the pupil went to the university. Among the more eminent humanists were Cellarius, Gesner, Ernesti, Morus, Reiske, Hermann, Schaefer, Schneider, Heyne, Wolf, Voss, Creuzer, Bockh and Jacobs, many of whom prepared admirable editions of the classics and works on classical archæology; and their principles have been most nearly followed in the schools of Saxony and the Netherlands, in the seminary of St. Thomas in Leipsic, and in the gymnasium of Strasbourg. New ideas upon education were developed by Comenius, Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Some of the educational works of Comenius were translated into several languages, and his Orbis Pictus long remained a popular household book, and the model of picture books. His aim was to make education more simple and conformable to nature, to have more regard for diversities of character, to teach nothing which could not be

understood by the pupil, and to render the process of learning easy and agreeable. Locke applied to education the principles of the Baconian philosophy by which a scientific realism was substituted for the old logical verbalism, and things rather than books made the sources of knowledge, and urged the union of a due regard to positive and practical science with the culture of the intellect through the medium of language. The Émile of Rousseau contains a system of education founded on the ideas but not the experience of its author, and presents an ideal and joyous view of domestic culture most strongly in contrast with the circumstances of his own life. The early education of the child is, according to him, of the greatest importance, and the charge of it can properly belong only to the mother and the father. In the long procession of things to be learned, nothing appears till the student is prepared to grasp it without difficulty, and the attainments in knowledge come almost unconsciously by a series of easy steps. The child, too, should be educated not for a trade or profession, but for the common and absolute state of man; should not therefore subject himself to any thraldom of habit, but be independent of every thing about him, and master of himself. Shielded from the corruptions of society and the trammels of conventionalism, and left open to the influences of nature and of conscience, the character should perfect itself intellectually, socially, and morally. Parents were allured to study a system which seemed to remove all trouble, labor, and care from the concerns of life. Education was to become an amusement, and man a reasonable creature, without annoyance, without perverted inclinations, without even a futile effort. To realize the theories of Rousseau was the task of Basedow, and he succeeded in effecting great changes in the nature of education in Germany. He announced an immense institution to be founded at Dessau, and to be called the Philanthropinum, in which the child was to remain till he was a man and a citizen. The Elementarwerk, in which he exhibited his plan, received subscriptions from princes, magistrates, ministers of state, and the most distinguished learned men of Germany and Switzerland, all entertaining an exaggerated enthusiasm for the new human culture, in which nature was to take the place of discipline. An ideal was conceived in striking contrast with the reigning severity of masters, primness of pupils, perruques and swords of little boys, and hoop petticoats of little girls. The Philanthropinum was established in 1774, under the care of Basedow and Wolke, but declined after a momentary splendor. It was continued with better success by Simon and Schweighäuser, and similar institutions were founded at various places in Germany, only one of which, at Schnepfenthal in Gotha, still continues. Under the name of eclectics are classed those who were the disciples of no exclusive school, but from truly philanthropic motives sought to instruct classes

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hitherto neglected. Such was the origin of the efforts for the instruction of deaf mutes by Heinicke, Braidwood, the abbé de l'Epée, and Sicard; the instruction of the blind by Valentin Hauy, Klein, and Lenné; the institution of Sunday schools by Robert Raikes, Oberlin, and others; the organization of reformatories by Odisculchi and Fata Giovanni in Rome, and by the philanthropic society in London; and many of the special schools of commerce, agriculture, mines, the arts of design, and other departments.-In Germany since the latter part of the last century the principles of education have been actively discussed, the most prominent writers on the subject being Sulzer, Miller, Weisse, Ehlers, Büsch, Feder, Resewitz, Gurlitt, Funk, Roetger, Heusinger, Niemeyer, Schwartz, and Beneke. But the man who for the last hundred years has exerted the greatest influence on education is the Swiss Pestalozzi. According to the principles developed by him in various writings, education must begin early, under the discipline of home and the direction of parental wisdom and power. It must proceed according to the laws of nature, slowly and uninterruptedly, the teacher exciting the child to activity and rendering him but a limited amount of assistance. Individuality must be held sacred, and carefully studied and encouraged. Verbal teaching is futile unless it be implanted on previous mental experiences and verified by the senses. A development by merely mental operations, which the Socratic method favors, is vain and harmful, for the child can only utter a judgment concerning an object when he has examined it experimentally, and learned precisely to distinguish its qualities and attributes by words. Form, number, and language are the elements of knowledge, the principles by which the mind must be developed; and a thorough acquaintance with them in the various departments of learning constitutes an education. Therefore mental arithmetic, geometry, and the arts of drawing and modelling objects of beauty, are as important exercises as the study of languages. The school should be a place of liveliness and activity, and the scholar should have opportunity to exercise and reveal his power. The system of Pestalozzi has been adopted in the Prussian schools with slight modifications, and has exerted a greater influence than any other on teachers in England, America, and the north of Europe. His system was modified by Fellenberg in his institution at Hofwyl, by Jacotot in the university of Louvain, and by Felbiger, bishop of Sagan, in the schools which he organized. There were combined at Hofwyl an agricultural institute, theoretical and practical, a rural school for the poor, a superior school for the sons of the nobility, an intermediate school for those of the middle classes, and a normal school for the instruction of the teachers of the canton. The system of Fellenberg varied from that of Pestalozzi only by communicating more practical and positive knowledge. The method of Jacotot, which has

been generally adopted in Belgium, gives greater exercise to the faculty of memory; he required his pupils to recite by heart all their lessons, whether in the languages or the sciences. The method of Sagan, so named from the see of its author, is a combination of the methods of Basedow and Pestalozzi, was propagated in Bohemia by command of Maria Theresa, and was in vogue throughout Austria till 1842. It regarded education only from a utilitarian point of view, and aimed to amuse the scholar while instructing him, and to make the lessons as clear as possible, passing to the unknown from the known. It rapidly traversed numerous branches of study. Joseph Lancaster (died in 1839), a member of the society of Friends in England, was the founder of the monitorial system, by which the most intelligent pupils in a school were required to teach their fellows what they had learned in advance of them. This plan doubtless developed the intellect of the monitor, and was at one time adopted in many schools in large towns in England and America, but has been abandoned from the fact that the incomplete and confused knowledge of the premature teachers often made their instructions rather akin to error than to truth.-Germany, with most of the other continental countries, England, and the United States present three different methods of administering the national elementary education. The Prussian educational system is purely governmental, emanating solely from a minister of instruction immediately dependent on the crown. The universities, the gymnasia, and the primary schools are all under laws and regulations which proceed respectively from the crown, from the provincial government, and from the communes. Every child in the kingdom is obliged under pains and penalties to attend school at least from the age of 7 to that of 14, and the result is that the Prussian people are efficiently educated throughout the entire community, and that the universities send forth a large body of highly educated men. Yet with their vast and powerful machinery for popular instruction, the Prussians have not taken a leading part in civilization, and the reason is stated by Horace Mann to be, that when the children once leave school they have few opportunities of applying the knowledge or exercising the faculties which have been acquired and developed there. The national education of all the German states closely resembles that of Prussia. The universities, colleges, and primary schools of France (the latter of which were organized in 1833 under the administration of Guizot, from reports on the German system of popular education made by Cousin), are in like manner established and directed by governmental author

ity. Permission is however given to any teacher under certain conditions to open a private school; and denominational schools may be registered on the government list of educational institutions. But in England no schools (except those connected with pauper, naval, military, and penal establishments) are initiated by the civil government, or to any considerable extent managed by it. The education of the people is under the care of the established church and of the other religious organizations, and the government comes to their aid by bestowing grants on certain conditions when its assistance is required. The system is entirely different in the United States, where, though the state governments take the initiative, they only go so far as to ordain that schools of a certain character must exist among a given population. All the questions concerning the buildings, teachers, and methods of instruction are determined by the people in their capacity of free citizens. The government provides for education, but makes the people its agent in accomplishing the provision. Consequently, there is much diversity in the educational condition of different parts of the country, the school system being generally most complete in the most compactly settled states, especially those of New England. The efforts of Henry Barnard, Horace Mann, Daniel P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others, during the last 20 years, have been influential in introducing large and well-directed measures and plans for the improvement of public education in America.-Among the most valuable treatises on the subject are: Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829); Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts in welthistorischer Entwickelung (Leipsic, 1832'38); Von Raumer, Geschichte der Pädagogik seit dem Wiederaufblühen classischer Studien (Stuttgart, 1843-52); Fritz, Esquisse d'un système complet d'instruction et d'éducation (Strasbourg, 1841-'43); Théry, Histoire de l'éducation en France (Paris, 1858); educational reports of the Canadian school system, and of the superintendents and boards of education of the different states of the American Union; Henry Barnard, "National Education in Europe" (Hartford, 1854), "Journal of Education" (6 vols., Hartford, 1856-59), also educational tracts, and reports on the public schools of Connecticut and Rhode Island; and Horace Mann, "Annual Reports of the Massachusetts Board of Education" (Boston, 1837-'48), and "Lectures on Education" (Boston, 1855).-The educational systems and statistics of different states and countries are given under their respective titles. See also COLLEGE, COMMON SCHOOLS, NORMAL SCHOOLS, SCHOOLS, UNIVERSITY.