United States, and the wonders of human genius re-acting upon unsurpassed resources, he is still more impressed by the anti-social influence of American Trusts, the U.S. Labour Department's reports of the sweating of little children, the low wages and long hours of large bodies of American workers, stories of political graft, and the entire absence of a Labour Party in politics in the United States.

The two countries have thus differing social outlooks and standards. Could Australia copy American organisation and retain her high standard of average comfort, she would lead civilisation. This young nation has made a courageous and noble effort to rear its national life, not upon wealth, but upon commonwealth.” In that effort the faults of crudity and youth are glaringly apparent. Nor is she alone in the great adventure. But in these days of universal unrest, other nations may learn from Australia the true reality of the distinction between national wealth and national welfare.

“Though much is due to a better social outlook, Australians are apt to forget their great debt to fortune. A combination of circumstances over which they have no control laid the foundations of their success. In the first place, Australia was a virgin country, very little spoiled in the earlier halfcentury of its development. It had inherited no feudal landlordism, with its traditions of servility and homage to outworn institutions. It escaped the worst afflictions of an old industrial system, and soon abolished the more unseemly features of modern industrialism. The democratic franchise was gained in time to place the impress of the people's will upon all Australia's youthful institutions. It is none the less remarkable, however, that this land flowing with milk and honey was not given over entirely to exploitation by that intense form of individualism which characterises the early progress of almost every new colony."*

"The New Social Order," pp. 274-5.

Sociological Tests.

Modern sociology has definitely repudiated the crudely utilitarian standards of progress accepted by nineteenth century commercialism. The ethical test of civilisation may now be said to be generally accepted by social theorists, and in a sense that far transcends the material objective" the higher standard of comfort "of the social reform movement of the last generation. Social amelioration, from being an end, has become a means, the true test of social progress being spiritual. It may be said that Australia, more than any other country, has adopted the high standard of social welfare as the objective of its national policy, but without realising the higher objectivity of a rising standard of comfort. It has applied the methods of re-valuation of "wealth" so eloquently advocated by John Ruskin, but without any intellectual analysis or deep spiritual understanding. Hence Australia is a country of high social standards, but it has made no contribution of importance to sociological thought. If Australians were asked, they would agree that the final outcome and consummation of all wealth is in the producing as many as possible, full-breathed, bright-eyed and happy-hearted human beings." But they are utilitarian enough to be satisfied with the concrete results of advanced social legislation, without troubling to enunciate any theory of society. Judged by the standard which they themselves have adopted, their achievement must be regarded as unique. Whether we test it by the material conditions which they have created for themselves, or by the spirit in which they approach their relations with their fellows, the people of Australia have given a large-scale demonstration of the supreme importance of social environment in elevating the physical and mental standards of a nation.

When we come to test the concrete achievements of Australia in the social sphere, we cannot but

consider the total result remarkable. While Australians are apt to exaggerate the success of these conditions on the quantitative side, and to underestimate the social improvements effected by other countries faced with far more difficult problems, the qualïtitative test of her civilisation must yield to Australia a foremost place amongst the nations of the world. The principal items to her credit may be usefully enumerated* before fuller particulars are recorded (1) The more equitable distribution of wealth, both as national income and personal property. (2) The extension of political rights, through the universal franchise-including equality of the sexes-the Referendum, and similar democratic devices. (3) A very high level of general elementary education, as exhibited in the widespread interest in and understanding of domestic politics, and the remarkable number of magazines and newspapers. (4) The great strength of the political Labour Labour movement, and the frequent accession to political power of the Australian Labour Party in the States and the Commonwealth. (5) The power and numbers of the trade unions of Australia, unrivalled anywhere else in the world. (6) The non-existence of any peasant class or urban proletariat, in the old-world sense. (7) The absence of work-houses and other institutions for poor relief, which involve acceptance of the social problem as permanent and insoluble. (8) The system of old-age and invalid pensions and the baby bonus, on a scale far more generous than that of other countries. (9) Factory legislation of the most enlightened and advanced kind, rigorously enforced by the Governments, and particularly strict regarding the employment of women and children. (10) Relatively high wages for all occu

* In all cases of comparison, the reader is asked to presume that New Zealand standards are quite equal to, and sometimes higher than, those of Australia.

Other chapters in this book deal at length with several of these topics.

pations, and higher wages for labourers and women than in other countries. (11) The almost universal adoption of the eight-hours day and the forty-eighthours week, with even shorter hours in some trades, together with the early closing of shops and public offices. (12) Enlightened Public Health Acts, and rigorous administration of Pure Foods and Drugs Acts. (13) A remarkably low general deathrate, infant death-rate and prevalence of disease. (14) The nationalisation of railways and numerous smaller enterprises, and the great amount of State intervention and control in industrial and commercial matters generally. (15) The regulation of the conditions of labour through Wages Boards and Arbitration Courts established by law. (16) The White Australia policy, whose main objective is the preservation of the Australian standard of social welfare. (17) The "New Protection," whose aim is the same as that of the White Australia policythe maintenance and elevation of the economic standards of Australian labour by fiscal measures. (18) The extremely enlightened administration of Papua (British New Guinea) by the Government of the Commonwealth. (19) The prevalence of openair sports and pastimes, which are availed of by all classes to a remarkable degree.

It is by no means suggested that every one of these evidences of progress is without blemish. But they are presented rather as indications of the Australian outlook and the admirable objective of our social legislation, than as necessarily successful or good in themselves. State Socialism and Industrial Arbitration, for example, have by no means achieved what their advocates promised. But their objectives are none the less admirable, and are consistent with the general aim of Australian civilisation. In most cases the facts, as cited below, speak clearly for themselves.

"In art, literature, and science, Australia has produced a number of distinguished men and women far beyond what might have been expected of

so small a population. But it must be regretfully admitted that there is much more appreciation of distinguished Australians outside their country than in it. The average Australian holds in slight regard achievements in the sphere of the intellect. Something of this is due to the materialism natural to a young country, but more is traceable to the absence of the highly-cultured society, intense social life, and great educational institutions of Europe and America. In their anxiety to repudiate the bad social conditions and undemocratic thought of the Old World, Australians often make the mistake of neglecting the high cultural value of European civilisation. They speak disparagingly of things from abroad, and are too complacent in claiming for Australia the foremost place in every activity. There is nothing more fatal to the intellectual and social progress of a nation than hostility to the thought and methods of other peoples. It must be admitted, however, that the Australian finds much excuse for his attitude in the assumption of superiority by those from other lands."*

Practical Achievements.

The Census of the Private Wealth of Australia† taken during the war showed how much more equitable is the distribution of both income and property than in other countries. The most signal features of the results of the investigation are the relatively small number of very large incomes, the low percentage of incomes over £1000, and the high average of factory wages and of women's wages. The most casual observer must notice the reflection of this greater approach to economic equity in the fact of the relatively small difference between the daily apparel, manners, speech and general appearance of the various classes in Australia. It might be fairly asserted that the material

"The New Social Order," pp. 272-3.

See Chapter XIII.