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standpoint, being without proper arms, ammunition, uniforms or equipment. Many sets of such equipments had been issued to the National Guard of the several States. These were reported as serviceable, and when the National Guard was called out as volunteers it was presumed that they would be properly equipped from the stores in the hands of the State authorities. It was found, however, that a large proportion of these stores were not in fit condition for field service, and they had to be replaced."

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The instances could be multiplied ad infinitum and certainly ad nauseam, as is always the case with raw troops. Sickness, culminating in typhoid fever, soon prevailed, especially at Camp Thomas, where the sanitary conditions were "very imperfect and at times decidedly bad." 68 varnished truth is that

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"Large bodies of men who are not soldiers, under officers who have had little or no military training, can not be brought together and held for many weeks in camp and remain healthy. If the water supply is not abundant or is not good; if the thoroughly well-established rules of sanitation are not observed; if the discipline of the camp puts little restriction on drunkenness and immorality; if the soldier does not know how to live. and his officers do not watch him and teach him; if his food is poorly cared for and badly cooked, and he is permitted to eat and drink anything and everything he can find, sickness will certainly prevail. If, as at Camp Thomas, a regiment can go for ten days without digging sinks; if the sinks dug are not used or they quickly overflow and pollute the ground; if practically no protection is afforded against the liquor sellers and prostitutes of neighboring places; if commands are crowded together and tents seldom struck, or even never during the occupation of the camp; if no one is called to account for repeated violation of sanitary orders, it can not be but that typhoid fever once introduced will spread, rapidly, widely.

"How much may be accomplished by intelligent and watchful supervision on the part of surgeons and regimental officers and the observance of the well-established rules of camp sanitation is shown by the record of the Eighth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry at Camp Thomas. This regiment was for many weeks

very healthy," while much sickness was occurring in regiments near by, though the conditions of camp site, of water, and of drill were practically the same.

...

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"In conclusion it may be said that it is impossible to bring together a regiment of 1,300 men whose lives and habits have all been different and place them in camp, subject them to its discipline, diet, and duties, without much complaint. They must become acclimated and accustomed to camp life before sickness can be prevented; and until the individual soldier appreciates the necessity of complying fully with the regulations and confines himself to the regular food and this the soldier never does until experience teaches him the necessity - he will drink polluted water, eat noxious food that disturbs his digestive organs, and will not take care of himself, and no discipline or watching will prevent it. The imprudent acts of the soldiers are the first and greatest cause of sickness in camps.

"Another great cause of complaint was the inexperience of officers and surgeons as to proper sanitation, necessity of daily exercises, the camping too long in one place, lack of exercise by marches and other methods to take up the soldier's thoughts. This occurs to all volunteers." 71

As one war correspondent aptly put the case,

"What the country needs to know now is that in actual warfare the volunteer is a nuisance, that it always takes one regular to offset his mistakes, to help him cook his rations, and to teach him to shelter himself and to keep himself clean." 72

By far the most important lesson to be learned from the Spanish-American War is the necessity for a larger Regular Army than we then possessed. The dearth of trained soldiers prevented a force proportioned to the task that it was expected to accomplish from being sent to Cuba; the same reason caused the retention in the Philippines of the volunteers long after their term of service had legally expired; and a similar cause resulted in our fortifications being most inadequately manned. The strength of the Regular establishment must indispensably be determined by the rôle which it may be called upon to play in the defence of the country or to insure the success of such overseas expeditions as the Gov

ernment may deem it expedient to undertake. Under any circumstances, it ought to be of sufficient size that the odds that it can accomplish its mission may be on the side of the United States and not overwhelmingly in favour of its enemy, as was the case in 1898. Notwithstanding that General Shafter's command comprised "the finest body of men the country had ever assembled," 73 his expedition to Cuba is al,"73 most a by-word among military men. The plain truth is that

"THE ARMY WAS SIMPLY DISORGANIZED BY THE WORKING OF A SYSTEM WHICH THE VERY OFFICERS WHO WERE NOW CALLED UPON TO ENFORCE IT HAD TIME AND AGAIN ENDEAVORED TO MODERNIZE AND BRING ABREAST OF THE TIMES. AND THE ARMY BILLS, WHICH THE PAPERS AND THE POLITICAL DEMAGOGUES HAD COMBATED AND DEFEATED, HAD BEEN DRAWN UP WITH A VIEW TO PREVENTING THE OCCURRENCE OF SUCH A DISGRACEFUL SPECTACLE, WHICH THESE SAME PAPERS AND DEMAGOGUES NOW DESCRIBED IN SUCH GRAPHIC TERMS AND WITH SUCH INDIGNATION, BUT, OF COURSE, WITHOUT ASSIGNING THE BLAME WHERE IT BELONGED AT THEIR OWN DOORS.'

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As the Commission appointed to investigate the conduct of the War Department declared: 75

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One of the lessons taught by the war is that the country should hereafter be in a better state of preparation for war. Testimony has been taken on this subject, and suggestions have been made that large supplies of all the material not liable to deterioration should be kept on hand, to be continuously issued and renewed, so that in any emergency they might be available. Especially should this be the case with such supplies, equipment, and ordnance stores as are not in general use in the United States and which can not be rapidly obtained in open market.”

The fundamental responsibility for the majority of these defects rested with that legislative body in which alone is vested the power "to raise and support armies." The demoralization, disorders and incapacity which attended the opening operations were nothing more than the logical outcome of the unwillingness of Congress to prepare for war

until the last possible moment. Once again was demonstrated the vicious system to which our legislators have persistently bound us from the beginning of our national career, by neglecting to provide a force of thoroughly trained soldiers either large enough or elastic enough to meet the requirements of war as well as of peace, supported by a militia which has PREVIOUSLY had sufficient training to make it, when called out as volunteers, fairly dependable against the regular forces of other nations.76

The whole subject was admirably summed up in the testimony given before the Investigating Commission by one very distinguished general who declared that

"CONGRESS IS CHIEFLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE BAD ADMINISTRATION OF THE ARMY AND ITS ORGANIZATION. THEY HAVE OFTEN BEEN APPEALED TO TO RECONSTRUCT THE ARMY ON MODERN PRINCIPLES, AND THEY HAVE FAILED TO DO SO, AND UNTIL THIS IS DONE THE EVILS WE HAVE ENCOUNTERED WILL RECUR AGAIN, AND WE WILL NEVER BE ABLE TO TAKE OUR PLACE BESIDE OTHER MILITARY NATIONS UNTIL WE DO THAT." 77

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CHAPTER XVIII

THE PHILIPPINE WAR

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N December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a proclamation in which he announced that the mission. of the United States in the Philippines would be one of "benevolent assimilation." This pronunciamento is of unusual importance "because it precipitated the war in the Philippines and is the key to all our subsequent dealings with them." On January 4, 1899, it was officially published at Manila in amended form by General Otis as Military Governor, but within a few days it was recognised to be a mistake, the American attitude being construed by the natives as indicative of weakness and the desire to avoid a conflict. On the night of February 4th our troops were attacked by the Tagalogs who sought to capture Manila. A series of lively engagements continuing through that night, the 5th, 6th and 10th of February ensued, but the assaults of the natives. proved ineffectual, while the American lines, on the other hand, were extended and established at a considerable distance from the city. A concerted uprising of the Tagalogs in Manila - of whom there were some 200,000 took place on February 22nd, incited by an order issued by the Malalos government exhorting the extermination of the American army of occupation and of "all other individuals, of whatever race they may be," with the sole exception of Filipinos.5 Luckily this attempted massacre was forestalled and the entire city was guarded with a strong hand.

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The Eighth Army Corps was then composed of 20,870 officers and men 5,372 being regulars. As Secretary Root said in his report for 1899: 7

"All of the volunteers and 1,650 of the regulars were, or were about to become, entitled to their discharge, and their

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