strictions confining the work of the Survey to the public land region disappeared from the appropriation acts. In that year appropriation was made "for geologic surveys in various portions of the United States," a clause since repeated annually. Under this clause, which is much broader than the former clause authorizing the preparation of a geologic map, the Survey has extended every type of geologic investigation to the country at large.

As recently as 1914 the question was raised in Congress whether the work of the Survey should not be limited, either absolutely or conditionally, to the public lands, but no proposals embodying this view have ever received favorable consideration in either House.

In 1884 an agreement for coöperation was made between the Geological Survey and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which was about to undertake a topographic survey of the state, the expense of field work to be divided equally between the national survey and the state, the national survey to engrave the maps and give transfers of the plates to the state. This agreement, which worked out very satisfactorily, was but the first of a long series of agreements with the surveys of a number of the states for coöperation in topographic and subsequently in hydrographic and geologic work, and this form of state coöperation has been of the greatest value in permitting the extension of the Survey's standard methods and operations over the country at large much more rapidly than might otherwise have been possible. Coöperative agreements in geologic and paleontologic work were in effect with twentyfive states on June 30, 1917.7

As early as 1889 the Survey had informally extended its operations to the territory of Alaska, having sent its repre

7 No attempt is made here to describe this system of coöperation in full, as the Survey has described it in detail in a pamphlet entitled "Coöperation between the United States and the Various States in Topographic, Hydrographic and Geologic Work, 1910." The extent to which states have coöperated up to June 30, 1917, is, however, shown in the report of the Director of the Survey for the fiscal year 1917, and is summarized in Appendix 5.

sentatives with various governmental and private exploring expeditions with a view to gathering geological data. It first became possible, however, to undertake comprehensive work in Alaska in 1895, when Congress appropriated $5,000 for the investigation of the gold and coal resources of Alaska, and this amount was again appropriated in 1896 and 1897. Early in 1898, after rich gold deposits had been found in the Klondike region, in Canadian territory, the appropriation was increased to $25,000. In 1901 the scope of the surveys in Alaska was extended to cover all mineral resources and the annual appropriation was increased to $60,000. In 1905 it was increased to $80,000, in 1909 to $90,000, and in 1912 and later years to $100,000. A total of over one and a half million dollars has thus been expended by the Survey on Alaskan surveys and investigations. Before the Survey entered Alaska only the most meager information was available not only as to its resources but even as to the major features of its geography. In thirty years the Survey has mapped topographically over one-third of its surface and has made geologic explorations, in greater or less detail, over almost the whole of this part of

its area.

Even prior to their acquisition by the United States, the Survey had from time to time made geologic researches in Hawaii, Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1899 Congress by resolution called upon the Survey for information as to existing surveys of our insular possessions, and for estimates of the cost of further surveys. No action was taken by Congress on the report presented, however, nor has any express authority ever been granted to the Survey to extend its operations to those possessions. In 1910, however, the Survey entered into a cooperative agreement with the territorial government of Hawaii for the topographic survey of the territory which had already been begun by the territorial government, and work under similar agreements has since been steadily prosecuted. Similarly, in 1912, an agreement was entered into by the Survey

with the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Smithsonian Institution for geologic studies in the Canal Zone.

The broad pur

Development of Survey's Functions. poses of the Survey's work have remained constant throughout its history, but its functions and the manner of their performance have undergone many changes from time to time. These will here be briefly outlined, detailed discussion of the development of particular activities being reserved for the following chapter.

The organic act of 1879, together with the amending act of 1882, specified four distinct functions to be performed by the Survey-the geological survey of the public lands, the classification of the public lands, the examination of the geological structure and the mineral resources and products of the national domain, and the preparation of the geologic map of the United States.

At first the Survey took the position that by the term "classification of the public lands," Congress did not intend to imply a detailed survey of the individual tracts of land in the public domain, with respect to their inclusion under the provisions of one or another of the public land laws, but merely a general survey of the soil and mineral characteristics of the lands. In effect, therefore, this portion of the law was regarded as adding little if anything to the clauses calling for the geological survey of the public lands and for the examination of the mineral resources and products of the national domain, and in this interpretation Congress apparently acquiesced, as it was followed by the Survey for many years without evoking any change in the phraseology of the successive appropriation acts.

The authority to prepare a geologic map of the country. was construed by the Survey as giving authority to prepare also a topographic map; the position being taken that a geologic map could properly be prepared only if a topographic map were available as a base.

In accordance with the interpretation of the statutes the early

work of the Survey fell into three classes: (1) topographic surveys; (2) geologic surveys in areas of economic importance or theoretical interest; (3) research in geologic theory and the theory of related sciences.

In 1882 the scope of the Survey's functions was enlarged by a provision in the appropriation act for the year 1882-3 that "not to exceed ten thousand dollars of the amount appropriated may be applied under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior to the procuring of statistics in relation to mines and mining other than gold and silver and in making chemical analysis of iron, coal and oil." Almost immediately upon its organization the Survey had undertaken to collect statistics of mines and mining in coöperation with the Tenth Census. The legislation quoted placed the work upon a permanent basis and permitted the publication by the Survey in 1883 of a volume entitled "Mineral Resources of the United States," comprising over 800 pages of statistical matter for the calendar year 1882. An appropriation for the preparation of this report has since been granted every year, and the report has come to be one of the best known of the Survey's publications.

Congressional Investigation of 1886. The Survey had been in existence but little over five years when its plans and methods became the subject of a sweeping inquiry by a joint congressional commission. The rapidly growing appropriations for several large scientific bureaus of the government-the Geological Survey, the Signal Service (which then performed the functions since vested in the Weather Bureau), and the Hydrographic Office-became, beginning in 1883, a subject of discussion in Congress, and in 1884 provision was made in the sundry civil appropriation act (23 Stat. L., 219) for a joint congressional commission to "consider the present organizations" of the bureaus mentioned, "with the view to secure greater efficiency and economy in the administration of the public service in said Bureaus." The commission appointed held numerous hearings in 1885 and 1886, Major

8

Powell, the Director, appearing for the Survey. The main questions regarding the Survey's work raised in hearings related to the value of topographic maps executed on so small a scale as was then employed by the Survey, the rate of progress toward completion and publication of the Survey's geological maps, and the propriety of the wide scope of the Survey's scientific investigations and publications.

While the minority of the commission, consisting of two of the six members, submitted a report criticizing the Survey on the score of costliness, slowness and lack of practical applicability of its work, the majority expressed the opinion that the Survey as a whole was "well conducted, and with economy and care, and discloses excellent administrative and business ability on the part of its chief."9 They reported, however, in favor of restricting the printing or engraving of "the scientific reports known as Monographs and Bulletins of the Geological Survey" by requiring that specific and detailed estimates should be made therefor and specific appropriations made in pursuance of such estimates. This provision was accordingly incorporated in the sundry civil appropriation act adopted shortly afterward (act of August 4, 1886, 24 Stat. L., 255).

In 1888 the appropriation for the operating expenses of the Survey, which had up that time been granted as a lump sum, was itemized under eight heads; and of a total appropriation of slightly over $737,240, $40,000 was appropriated for "paleontologic researches" and $17,000 for "chemical and physical researches." Thus, within two years after the commission had made its report, Congress by express action sustained the Survey in its paleontologic and chemical and physical research, the utility of which had been questioned by

8 Major Powell's testimony furnishes a mine of information relative to the early operations of the Survey. All the testimony taken by the commission was printed as Senate Misc. Doc. No. 82, 49th Congress, 1st Session (Vol. 4 of Misc. Docs.).

9 Senate Report No. 1285, 49th Congress, 1st Session.