said that some of the Ulemah undertook, with more zeal than prudence, to reclaim the apostates by argument. How their discussions were carried on, it would be difficult to ascertain exactly. The Moslem, it may be supposed, would insist on the direct evidence which the witnesses of the life and actions of Mahomet possessed of his divine commission, and on the firm establishment and wide diffusion of the faith, in spite of the mighty and numerous obstacles which the Prophet and his immediate followers had to encounter. The Wahabees would probably assert their better right to be heard, as bearing testimony from their own knowledge to the frequent interpositions of Heaven in favour of Abdul, who, if that were any proof of divine protection, had introduced the new doctrines under difficulties and dangers unprecedented in the religious revolutions of the East. The religion of Mahomet,' they probably added, is a partial religion, which was not intended for us. How can we (they would say) perform ablutions when we have no water? How can we give alms, when we have no riches? Or what occasion can there be to fast during the month of Ramadan, when we fast all the year?'* The result of these disputes was such as might be expected. Intolerant bigotry on one side, and fanatical enthusiasm on the other, would shut the ears of both parties to the language of truth and reason; and no appeal would be suffered to lye from the prejudices of either, but to the sabre and the musket. The appeal to arms has indeed been made; and we have thought that, in examining the publication of a traveller, whose book is almost wholly employed in detailing the manners, laws, and customs, prevalent in the Ottoman empire, we might easily be pardoned for introducing a subject which we consider as both curious and important. The throne of the Sultan is already shaken in Europe. Who can doubt that the propagation of the new faith will rapidly accelerate the dissolution of his power in Asia?

The Turkish empire, indeed, at the present day, exhibits a most singular and anomalous appearance. To the eye, at a distance, it may seem a mighty and even a solid structure; but, when closely examined, it only excites astonishment by not falling_immediately to pieces. It would be impossible for us to follow our author in the account which he has given of it, or, in the limits which we prescribe to ourselves, to attempt to do more than to draw a mere outline of the extraordinary form of its constitution. In order to make its real situation be understood, we cannot perhaps begin better, than by adopting the observation of MrEton, who remarks, that in the Mahometan system of policy, we may

* See Malthus on the Principle of Population, b. I. c. 7.

trace

trace three æras. The first was of that kind usually denominat ed a theocracy, continued during the lifetime of the prophet himself, who, like Moses and Joshua among the Jews, appeared in the double character of a military chief and an inspired legislator;' the second lasted while the Saracen caliphs held in their hands both the spiritual and temporal authorities; and the third is marked by the separation of these, since the concerns of religion have been trusted to the Ulemah, of whom the mufti is the chief. Another revolution, however, has taken place, which is scarcely less important than the others. We allude to the changes in the military system, and especially to the altered character of the Janissaries. In two great points, then, the present emperor stands In a very different position from the ancient sultans, should we even confine our views to his power in the capital of his empire. First, He can issue no edict which is contrary to the Koran; and the Ulemah, who are now the sole interpreters of the meaning of that book, must sanction every law by the authority of their fetrah, before it can become binding on the people. Nay, to such an extent is their power now pushed, that the Sultan finds himself compelled to submit to the inspection of their leading men, not only all his negotiations with other courts, but all the secrets of his cabinet. His sole defence against the encroachments of this body, consists in his remaining right to depose the mufti ; but though he can thus intimidate their chief, and gain over some of their leaders by the promises of promotion, the esprit du corps acts frequently and successfully in opposition to his will. His own ministers do not fail to take advantage of this situa tion of things; and they often coalesce with the Ulemah, in order to defeat the cabals which are continually carrying on against them in the seraglio. There, every favourite has a party, and every minister a protector. But the Sultan is kept in awe by the Úlemah; nor dares he rashly to choose men for his counsellors, who are not agreeable to those formidable interpreters of the law. Hence his power is really limited. Hence, too, he naturally endeavours to throw the chief responsibility on his ministers, and is more easily induced to remain inactive himself. The consequences of this may be clearly seen in a country, where the public voice is nothing; where each individual grasps at power and wealth, without any other consideration; and where pride, prejudice, ignorance, aud bigotry, check every improvement, and believe in no amelioration. Secondly, The debasement of the Janizaries, by the introduction of the vilest vagabonds of the community into their bands, and by their long cessation from warlike enterprizes, has diminished considerably the power of the Sultan, as the sovereign of a vast empire; though it has, perhaps, contri

buted

buted to his own perfonal fecurity, by effectually damping, that daring fpirit of revolt among his troops which had proved fatal to fo many of his predeceffors. With refpect to the military force of the Turks, we refer our readers to Mr Eton, whose statements have been adopted by Mr Griffiths. The attention of the philofophical politician, however, will be directed with more interest to the state of the Turkish provinces. Thefe, as it is well known, are fome of the faireft, and have been fome of the happiest and most enlightened regions of the earth. Greece, Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Arabia, recal a thousand pleafing recollections, which can no longer be affociated with them in their present state of barbarifm, flavery, and degradation. The authority of the Sultan over thefe provinces is perhaps of the moft fingular nature. which ever retained nations under the government of a fovereign. We have heard the Turkish empire compared with Europe in the feudal times, and the Pachaliks likened to those great fiefs which were held by feudal tenures. Some refemblance may exift; but there are effential differences. The Pachas of Bagdad, Damafcus, Aleppo, Albania, and the Morea, admit the nominal fovereignty of the Ottoman emperor, as the lords of Guienne and Burgundy paid homage to their liege the King of France. But the kings of France knew well, that by a prudent policy these provinces might revert to the crown; intermarriages might be made; wars between the great barons might be fomented, by which they would be mutually weakened; and, finally, the extinction of families promised fooner or later to give real or pretended rights to the fovereign to affume dominion over the eftates of his vaffals. In Turkey, the governor is generally the most powerful man of the province, who reigns in the name of the Sultan, without asking his leave. If it be worth his while, he fends prefents to the Porte, and readily fwears allegiance to a master, the shadow of whofe authority he may fometimes think it convenient to acknowledge. Even this admiffion is made rather from the prejudices of religion, than from any other motive; and Selim continues to be refpected as Caliph, where he has long ceafed to be feared as Sultan.

In his account of the Turkish finances, Dr Griffiths is again indebted to Mr Eton. We do not object to this kind of honeft plagiarism. Dr Griffiths copies whole pages from another book, and fairly confesses it.

According to the law of Turkey, the wealth of every individual ought, at his death, to revert to the Sultan. It would be useless to expatiate on the folly and injustice of fuch a law. That artifices fhould be employed to elude it, can be a fubject of no surprise; and that they should fucceed, can be a caufe of no regret, except

to

to the defpot and his creatures, who require fo unjust a facrifice. The ufual means of evading the claims of the Sultan, are fufficiently indicative of the hypocrify and the bigotry of the Turks. All donations for pious purposes, fuch as the maintenance of mofques and hofpitals, are confidered as facred. When the father of a family wishes to provide for his children after his demife, he makes over the bulk of his fortune to fome religious or charitable establishment. A perfon is nominated to receive the appropriated fum, and another to account with the receiver for its application. But the donor has the right to appoint both thefe perfons, and he of courfe takes care that they fhall be the very individuals to whom he wishes to leave his eftates. The Ulemah probably receive a fufficient profit to induce them to wink at the deceit, which, by being very general, neceffarily enriches them. Our author's chapter upon thefe wakfs, or falfe affignments, if it be not quite original, will be found to be curious and entertaining.

We have not time to follow Dr Griffiths in the detail of his voyage back from Conftantinople to Smyrna. He took this opportunity of vifiting the Troad; and after reflecting upon what came under his own observation, during his hafty and immethodical vifit,' he confeffes himself strongly prejudiced in favour of those hypothefes' which M. Chevalier has prefented to the literary world. We are not inclined to dispute with our traveller upon a queftion which we have done our endeavours to put to reft. It is not, however, a fingle hafty and immethodical vifit to the Troad, that can entitle an author to affert, that every admirer of Homer and claffic learning muft feel themfelves deeply indebted to M. Chevalier's perfevering fpirit of inquiry, for those interesting elucidations which fcepticifm only can wifh to depreciate. We were glad to find that our traveller had time for other reflections.

* Dr Griffiths, in a note, takes occafion to pay a high compliment to Mr Gell, who, he fays, is entitled to every praise for a moft diligent and accurate furvey of the Troad. Mr Gell made this furvey in three days; and Dr Griffiths, who made a hafty and immethodical vifit to the Troad twenty years before, pronounces this furvey to be moft diligent and accurate!!! There is, however, one point, and it is of fome importance, about which, either he who obtained, or he who bestowed the eulogy, must be ftrangely mistaken. If Mr Gell be accurate (fee the Edinburgh Review for July 1805), there are evident traces of the city and refidence of Priam. If Dr Griffiths, who admires the accu→ racy of Mr Gell, be himself accurate, not one ftone marks the refidence of Priam !-and fo completely annihilated is every trace of his city, that doubts have even been entertained of its having ever exifted !!!'

tions. They come, we think, more fuitably from his pen; though fome admirers of Homer and of claffical learning, more faftidious than ourselves, may admire that they should have been indited during a hafty and immethodical vifit to the plain of Troy. 'However the art of cooking,' fays Dr Griffiths, may be little understood by parlour guests in general, it is of too much importance to be wholly neglected by travellers who perform a journey in these countries, and in the manner I did. I have had repeated occafion,' adds he, with a confcious fenfe of talent, to congratulate myself, that my abilities in that line have prevented me from experiencing the lofs of a wholesome and comfortable meal.'

After having quitted the Troad, Dr Griffiths vifited Tenedos, Mitylene, Ipfora, and Scio. Dr Griffiths is a very gallant man, and does not fail to talk much of the beauty of the ladies in the laft mentioned ifland. His criticisms on their dress, we have no doubt, are very judicious; but we do not think it quite fair in him to publish to the world, that their fhort petticoats did not fucceed in preventing the eye of curiosity from spying their embroidered garters.

Our traveller, after having run some risks of being either starved or drowned, arrived at Smyrna, and proceeded from that city with the caravan to Aleppo. He paffed by Sardis; had a view of the river Pactolus; faw the fnow-capped Tmolus at a diftance; purfued his route to Allah-fheer, the ancient Philadelphia-to Aphiom-kara-hiffar, the ancient Apamea-to Koniah, the ancient Iconium-to Ereklee, once Heraclea-over the waters of the Cydnus-across the mountains of Taurus ;-and having paffed over from Adana to the coast of Syria, proceeded by Seleucia, Antioch, and Martavaun to Aleppo. The account of this journey forms, in our opinion, the most interesting part of the volume in which it is contained. It cannot be read without deeply impreffing the mind with abhorrence for the cruelty, cunning, and rapacity of the modern mafters of Afia Minor. Virtue is not acknowledged if it do not conform with the precepts of the Koran; and there is fcarcely either pity or charity for the ftranger who thinks there may be other guides of duty. To treat him ill is lawful,-to infult him is meritorious. No allowance is made for difference of education, opinion, and habits. Reasoning is profcribed where bigotry is law. The Muffulman, when he fpeaks to an infidel, answers every appeal to the best feelings of the human heart, and to the best energies of the human mind, by contemptuous and opprobrious epithets. The hard ufage which our traveller met with, marks well the character of the barbarous and fuperftitious people by whom he was furrounded. It is lefs offenfive to hear of the mad ceremonies of the mad followers of Mewlana and Rufayee VOL. VIII. NO. 15.

D