lay, in his famous essay, quotes him as saying: "Philosophy is the relief of man's estate, and the endowment of the human race with new powers; increasing their pleasures and mitigating their sufferings." These noble words seem to anticipate the famous definition of civil engineering, embodied by Telford in the charter of the British Institution of Civil Engineers: Engineering is the art of controlling the great powers of nature for the use and convenience of man."

66

dexes of all scientific and engineering articles as fast as they appear is another modern contrivance.

Formerly scientific discoveries were concealed by cryptograms, printed in a dead language, and hidden in the archives of learned societies. Even so late as 1821 Oersted published his discovery of the uniformity of electricity and magnetism in Latin.

Engineering works could have been designed and useful inventions made, but The seed sown by Bacon was long in they could not have been carried out withproducing fruit. Until the laws of nature cut combination. Corporate organization were better known, there could be no prac- collects the small savings of many into tical application of them. Towards the great sums through savings-banks, life end of the eighteenth century a great in- insurance companies, etc., and uses this tellectual revival took place. In litera- concentrated capital to construct the vast ture appeared Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, works of our days. This could not conHume, and Goethe. In pure science there tinue unless fair dividends were paid. came Laplace, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Lin- Everything now has to be designed so as næus, Berzelius, Priestley, Count Rum- to pay. Time, labor, and material must ford, James Watt, and Dr. Franklin. The last three were among the earliest to bring about a union of pure and applied science. Franklin immediately applied his discovery that frictional electricity and lightning were the same to the protection of buildings by lightning-rods. Count Rumford (whose experiments on the conversion of power into heat led to the discovery of the conservatism of energy) spent a long life in contriving useful in

ventions.

James Watt, one of the few men who have united in themselves knowledge of abstract science, great inventive faculties, and rare mechanical skill, changed the steam-engine from a worthless rattletrap into the most useful machine ever invented by man. To do this he first discovered the science of thermodynamics, then invented the necessary appliances, and finally constructed them with his own hands. He was a very exceptional man. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were few engineers who had received any scientific education. Now there is in the profession a great army of young men, most of them graduates of technical schools, good mathematicians, and well versed in the art of experimenting.

One of the present causes of progress is that all discoveries are published at once in technical journals and in the daily press. The publication of descriptive in

be saved, and he ranks highest who can best do this. Invention has been encouraged by liberal patent laws, which secure to the inventor property in his ideas at a moderate cost.

Combination, organization, and scientific discovery, inventive ability, and engineering skill are now united.

It may be said that we have gathered together all the inventions of the nineteenth century and called them works of engineering. This is not so. Engineering covers much more than invention. It includes all works of sufficient size and intricacy to require men trained in the knowledge of the physical conditions which govern the mechanical application of the laws of nature. First comes scientific discovery, then invention, and lastly engineering. Faraday and Henry discovered the electrical laws which led to the invention of the dynamo, which was perfected by many minds. Engineering built such works as those at Niagara Falls to make it useful.

An ignorant man may invent a safetypin, but he cannot build the Brooklyn Bridge.

The engineer in chief commands an army of experts, as without specialization little can be done. His is the comprehensive design, for which he alone is respon. sible.

Such is the evolution of engineering,

which began as a craft and has ended as a ticket with Gen. Winfield S. Hancock in profession.

Thoughtful persons have asked, will this new civilization last, or will it go the way of its predecessors? Surely the answer is: all depends on good government, on the stability of law, order, and justice, protecting the rights of all classes. It will continue to grow with the growth of good government, prosper with its prosperity, and perish with its decay.

Engineers, SOCIETIES OF. American Society of Civil Engineers, organized 1852; American Institute of Mining Engineers, organized 1871; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, organized 1880; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, organized 1884.

English, EARL, naval officer; born in Crosswicks, N. J., Feb. 18, 1824; entered the navy Feb. 25, 1840; was actively engaged during the Mexican War on the Pacific coast in Mexico and California; also served throughout the Civil War. In 1868, when the Tycoon of Japan was defeated by the Mikado's party, he found refuge on Commander English's ship Iroquois. He was promoted rear-admiral in 1884; retired in 1886. He died in Washington, D. C., July 16, 1893.

English, THOMAS DUNN, author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 29, 1819; graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1839; member of the New Jersey legislature in 1863-64; and of Congress in 1891-95; is the author of American Ballads; Book of Battle Lyrics; Poems; Ben Bolt, etc.

1880; published an historical and biographical work on the constitution of the law-makers of Indiana; and bequeathed to the Indiana Historical Society, of which he was president for many years, the funds to complete and publish his History of Indiana. He died in Indianapolis, Ind., Feb. 7, 1896.

English Language, a branch from the Low-German of the Teutonic or Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. It is closely related to the dialects spoken on the north shores of the German Ocean, especially with the Frisian dialect.

English Revolution, THE. When James II. attempted to establish despotism in England by destroying the constitution in Church and State, he arrayed against himself the united Church, the aristocracy, and the intelligent people of the realm. He also resolved to make the Roman Catholic the religious system of the kingdom, and sought to destroy all forms of Protestantism. He prorogued Parliament, and ruled despotically as an autocrat without it. So universal were the alarm and indignation caused by his conduct that there was a general longing for relief; and the fires of revolution burned intensely in the hearts of the people before they burst into a flame. The King's daughter Mary, who had married her cousin William, Prince of Orange, was heir to the throne of England in the absence of a male heir. When the people were ripe for revolution it was announced that James's second wife had given birth English, WILLIAM HAYDEN, capitalist; to a son (June 10, 1688). The hopes of born in Lexington, Ind., Aug. 27, 1822; the nation, which were centred on Mary, received a collegiate education and studied were grievously disappointed. The opinlaw; was a Democratic Representative ion was general that the alleged heir in Congress in 1852-61; and was con- just born was a supposititious one, and spicuous there because of his opposition not the child of the Queen. The volcano to the policy of his own party in the con- was instantly uncapped, and on June 30 troversy over the admission of Kansas (1688) leading men of the kingdom sent into the Union. He reported what was an invitation to William of Orange to known as the "English bill," which invade England and place his wife on provided that the question of admission its throne. He went, landed at Torbay under the Lecompton constitution be re- (Nov. 5) with 15,000 men, and penetrated ferred back to the people of Kansas. His the country. The people flocked to his report was adopted, and Kansas voted standard, King James fled to France, and against admission under that constitu- all England was speedily in the hands of tion. After his retirement from Congress the welcome invader. he engaged in various financial concerns; was candidate for Vice-President on the

On Feb. 13, the Convention Parliament conferred the crown of England on Will

tates to certain classes of descendants in which the legal course of succession of some descendants is cut off. The earliest English law of entail is found in the statute of Westminster in 1285. In the United States this law came over with the general body of enactments known as the "common law of England." Virginia abolished entail in 1776, and in recent years the laws governing such disposition of property have been gradually abandoned, and the purposes of entail are accomplished by other legal procedure. It is believed that Gardiner's Island, N. Y., is the only property in the United States now held entail by direct descendants of the grantee. See GARDINER, LION.

iam and Mary as joint sovereigns. Bancroft says of the political theory of the revolution: "The old idea of a Christian monarchy resting on the law of God was exploded, and political power sought its origin in compact. Absolute monarchy was denied to be a form of civil government. Nothing, it was held, can bind freemen to obey any government save their own agreement. Political power is a trust, and a breach of the trust dissolves the obligation to allegiance. The supreme power is the legislature, to whose guardianship it has been sacredly and unalterably delegated. By the fundamental law of property no taxes may be levied on the people but by its own consent or that of its authorized agents. These were the doc- Enterprise, THE. The Enterprise, fourtrines of the revolution, dangerous to teen guns, was an American brig that acEuropean institutions and dear to the quired the reputation of being "lucky.” colonies; menacing the Old World with She cruised for a long time off the New convulsive struggles and reforms, and es- England coast, the terror of British tablishing for America the sanctity of its provincial privateers, under Capt. Johnown legislative bodies. Throughout the ston Blakeley, until he was promoted to English world the right to representation the command of the new sloop-of-war could never again be separated from the Wasp, when Lieut. William Burrows bepower of taxation. The theory gave to came her commander. On the morning of vested rights in England a bulwark Sept. 1, 1813, she sailed from Portsmouth, against the monarch; it encouraged the N. H., in quest of British cruisers. On

colonists to assert their privileges, as pos- the morning of the 5th she discovered a sessing a sanctity which tyranny only could disregard, and which could perish only by destroying allegiance itself."

British brig in a bay near Pemaquid Point, which, observing the Enterprise, bore down upon her in menacing attitude. Entail of Estate. A disposition of es- Burrows accepted the challenge, cleared

of the Boxer was delivered to him, when he grasped it and said, "Now I am satisfied; I die contented." The command of the Enterprise devolved upon Lieut. E. R. MeCall, of South Carolina, who conducted his part of the engagement to its close with skill. He took both vessels into Portland Harbor on the morning of the 7th. The two young commanders were

to the nearest masculine representative of Lieutenant Burrows; and another was presented to Lieutenant McCall.

Envoy. A diplomatic or political rank inferior to that of AMBASSADOR (q. v.). In the diplomatic service in the United States the official designation is envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary. The representatives of the United States in the countries with which it has

the rank of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary are officially known as ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary.

his ship for action, and, after getting a buried side by side in a cemetery at Portproper distance from land to have ample land. Congress presented a gold medal sea-room for conflict, he edged towards the stranger, which proved to be the British brig Boxer, fourteen guns, Capt. Samuel Blyth. At twenty minutes past three o'clock in the afternoon the brigs closed within half pistol-shot of each other and both vessels opened fire at the same time. The wind was light, with very little sea, and the cannonading was destructive. Ten minutes later the Enterprise ranged ahead of the Boxer, and, mutually raised its representative above taking advantage of her position, she steered across the bows of her antagonist, and delivered her fire with such precision and destructive energy that, at four o'clock, the British officer in command Envoys to France. Monroe was reshouted through his trumpet that he had called from France in 1796, and CHARLES surrendered;, but his flag being nailed to COTESWORTH PINCKNEY (q. v.), of South the mast, it could not be lowered until Carolina, was appointed to fill his place. the Americans should cease firing. It On his arrival in France, late in the year, was found that Capt. Blyth had been cut with the letter of recall and his own crenearly in two by an 18-pound cannon-ball. dentials, the Directory refused to receive Almost at the same moment when Blyth him. Not only so, but, after treating fell on the Boxer, Burrows, of the Enter- him with great discourtesy, the Directory prise, was mortally wounded. So also peremptorily ordered him to leave France. was Midshipman Kervin Waters. Blyth He withdrew to Holland (February, 1797), was killed instantly; Burrows lived eight and there awaited further orders from hours. The latter refused to be carried home. When Mr. Adams took the chair below until the sword of the commander of state, the United States had no diplo

matic agent in France. The "French spirit of the people kept episcopacy at bay,

monarchy, and to make the ritual of the Anglican Church the state mode of worship. As early as 1748 Dr. Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury, had proposed the establishment of episcopacy in America,

party," or Republicans, having failed to for they remembered how much they had elect Jefferson President, the DIRECTORY suffered at the hands of the Church of (q. v.) determined to punish a people England. On the accession of George III. who dared to thwart their plans. In and the administration of the Earl of May, 1797, they issued a decree which Bute, among the reforms in the colonies was tantamount to a declaration of war contemplated and proposed by the minisagainst the United States. At about the try was the curtailment or destruction of same time President Adams, observing the Puritan and Dissenting influence in the perilous relations between the United the provinces, which seemed inimical to States and France, called an extraordinary session of Congress to consider the matter. There had been a reaction among the people, and many leading Democrats favored war with France. A majority of the cabinet advised further negotiations, and overtures were made to several emiand John Marshall, a Federalist, and nent Puritan divines to accept the leaderElbridge Gerry, a Democrat, were ap- ship, but they all declined it. A royalist pointed envoys extraordinary to join churchman in Connecticut, in 1760, in a Pinckney and attempt to settle all mat- letter to Dr. Secker, and to the Earl of ters in dispute. They reached France in Halifax, then at the head of the board of Cctober (1797), and sought an audience trade and plantations, urged the necessity with the Directory. Their request was met of providing two or three bishops for the by a haughty refusal, unless the envoys colonies, the support of the Church, and a would first agree to pay into the ex- method for repressing the rampant repubhausted French treasury a large sum of licanism of the people. "The rights of money, in the form of a loan, by the pur- the clergy and the authority of the King," chase of Dutch bonds wrung from that said the Bishop of London, "must stand nation by the French, and a bribe to the or fall together." amount of $240,000 for the private use of the five members of the Directory. The proposition came semi-officially from Talleyrand, one of the most unscrupulous politicians of the age. It was accompanied by a covert threat that if the proposition was not complied with the envoys might be ordered to leave France in twenty-four hours, and the coasts of the United States be ravaged by French cruisers from San Domino. They peremptorily refused, and Pinckney uttered, in substance, the noble words, "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute!" The envoys asked for their passports. They were given to the two Federalists under circumstances that amounted to their virtual expulsion, but Gerry, the Democrat, was induced to remain. He, too, was soon treated with contempt by Talleyrand and his associates, and he returned home in disgust.

The Anglican Church then had many adherents in all the colonies, who naturally desired its ascendency; but the great mass of the people looked upon that Church as an ally of the state in acts of oppres sion, and earnestly opposed it. They well knew that if Parliament could create dioceses and appoint bishops, they would establish tithes and crush out dissent as heresy. For years controversy in the colonies on this topic was warm, and sometimes acrimonious. Essays for and against episcopacy appeared in abundance. The Bishop of Llandaff, in a sermon preached before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, in which he advocated the necessity of establishing episcopacy in America, heaped abuse without stint upon the colonists. Upon the adventurers themselves," he said, "what reproach could he cast heavier than they Episcopacy in America. The Church deserve? who, with their native soil, abanand state in England worked in concert doned their native manners and religion, in forging fetters for the English-Ameri- and ere long were found, in many parts, can colonists. The Church of England was living without remembrance or knowledge early made a state establishment in the of God, without any divine worship, in colony of Virginia, but elsewhere the free dissolute wickedness and the most brutal