In 1797 the consul-general of the United States in France complained of the condemnation of American vessels unjustly. Merlin, the French minister of justice, made a reply in which he openly avowed the intention to humble the Americans and compel Congress to conform to the wishes of France by depre. dations upon American commerce. "Let your government," wrote this minister of justice (who was also a speculator in privateers), "return to a sense of what is due to itself and its true friends, become just and grateful, and let it break the incomprehensible treaty which it has concluded with our most implacable enemies, and then the French Republic will cease to take advantage of this treaty, which favors England at its expense, and no appeals will then, I can assure you, be made to any tribunal against injustice." In March, 1798, President Adams, in a special message, asked Congress to make provision for the war with France that seemed impending. It was promptly complied with. A provisional army of 20,000 regular soldiers was voted, and provision was made for the employment of volunteers as well as militia. Provision was also made for a national navy, and the office of Secretary of the Navy was created (see NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES), and the incumbent was made a member of the cabinet. Party spirit disappeared in the national legislature in a degree, and a war spirit everywhere prevailed. There were a few members of Congress who made the honor of the nation subservient to their partisanship. They opposed a war with France on any account; and so unpopular did they become that some of the most obnoxious, particularly from Virginia, sought personal safety in flight, under the pretext of needed attention to private affairs. Ever since Minister Adet's proclamation the Democrats, or friends of the French, had worn the tricolored cockade. When, in the spring of 1798, President Adams tock strong ground against France, a decided war spirit was aroused throughout the country; addresses poured in on the President; and everywhere were seen evidences of a reflex of opinion which sustained the President. In Philadelphia, an "Address to the President," signed by 5,000 citizens, was presented to Adams: and this was followed by an address by the young men of the city, who went in a body to deliver it, many of them wearing black cockades, the same which were worn in the American army during the Revolution. This was done in the way of defiance to the tricolored cockades. From this circumstance was derived the term, so familiar to politicians of that period, of "Black Cockade Federalists." It became, in time, a term of reproach, and the wearers were exposed to personal attacks. In July, 1798, the American Congress declared the treaties made between the United States and France (Feb. 6, 1778) at an end, and authorized American vessels of war to capture French cruisers. A marine corps was organized, and thirty cruisers were provided for. The frigates United States, Constitution, and Constel· lation, already built, were soon made ready for sea under such commanders as Dale, Barry, Decatur the elder, Truxton, Nicholson, and Phillips. Decatur soon captured a French corsair (April, 1798). So many American armed vessels in West India waters, in the summer and autumn of 1798, astonished the British and French authorities there. At the close of that year the American navy consisted of twenty-three vessels, with a total of 446 guns. It was much strengthened during the year 1799 by the launching and putting into commission several new ships, and victories over the French on the ocean were gained. In February, 1799, Commodore Truxton, in the Constellation, captured the French frigate L'Insurgente; and in February, 1800, he gained a victory over the French frigate La Vengeance. The convention at Paris brought about peace between the two nations, and the navy of the United States was called to another field of action. While war with France seemed inevitable, and was actually occurring on the ocean, a change in the government of that country occurred, which averted from the United States the calamity of war. For a long time the quarrels of political factions had distracted France. THE DIRECTORY (q. v.) had become very unpopular, and the excitable people were ripe for another revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte was then at the head of an resigned, leaving France without an execuarmy in the East. His brothers informed tive authority, and Bonaparte with its him of the state of affairs at home, and strong arm, the military, firmly in his he suddenly appeared in Paris with a few grasp. The Council of the Ancients, defollowers, where he was hailed as the good ceived by a trick, assembled at St. Cloud genius of the republic. With his brother the next day. Bonaparte appeared before Lucien, then president of the Council of them to justify his conduct. Perceiving Five Hundred, and the Abbé Sieyès, one of their enmity, he threatened them with arthe Directory, and of great influence in rest by the military if they should decide the Council of the Ancients, he conspired against him. Meanwhile Lucien had read for the overthrow of the government and the letters of resignation of the three the establishment of a new one. Sieyes directors to the Council of Five Huninduced the Council of the Ancients to dred. A scene of terrible excitement ocplace Bonaparte in command of the mili- curred. There were shouts of "No Cromtary of Paris, Nov. 9, 1799. Then Sieyes well! no dictator! the constitution forand two other members of the Directory ever!" Bonaparte entered that chamber with four grenadiers, and attempted to and paused; and, through letters to speak, but was interrupted by cries and Pinchon (August and September, 1798). execrations. The members seemed about information was conveyed to the United to offer personal violence to the bold sol- States government that the Directory dier, when a body of troops rushed in and were ready to receive advances from the bore him off. A motion was made for his former for entering intó negotiations. outlawry, which Lucien refused to put, Anxious for peace, President Adams, and left the chair. He went out and ad- without consulting his cabinet or the nadressed the soldiers. At the conclusion tional dignity, nominated to the Senate of his speech, Murat entered with a body William Vans Murray (then United of armed men, and ordered the council States diplomatic agent at The Hague) to disperse. The members replied with as minister plenipotentiary to France. defiant shouts and execrations. The This was a concession to the Directory drums were ordered to be beaten; the which neither Congress nor the people soldiers levelled their muskets, when all approved, and the Senate refused to but about fifty of the Council escaped by ratify the nomination. This advance, the windows. These, with the Ancients, after unatoned insults from the Directory, passed a decree making Sieyès, Bona- seemed like cowardly cringing before a parte, and Ducros provisional consuls. half-relenting tyrant. After a while the In December, Bonaparte was made first President consented to the appointment consul, or supreme ruler, for life. New of three envoys extraordinary, of which American envoys had just reached Paris Murray should be one, to settle all disat this crisis, and very soon Bonaparte putes between the two governments. concluded an amicable settlement of all Oliver Ellsworth and William R. Davie difficulties between the two nations. were chosen to join Murray. The latter Peace was established; the envoys re- did not proceed to Europe until assur MEDAL AWARDED BY CONGRESS IN COMMEMORATION OF THE CAPTURE OF LA VENGEANCE BY THE CONSTELLATION. turned home; and the provisional army ances were received from France of their of the United States which had been or- courteous reception. These were received ganized was disbanded. from Talleyrand (November, 1799), and Circumstances humbled the pride of the the two envoys sailed for France. The French Directory, and the wily Talleyrand began to think of reconciliation with the United States. He saw the unity of the people with Washington as leader, same month the Directory, which had become unpopular, was overthrown, and the government of France remodelled, with Napoleon Bonaparte as first consul, or supreme ruler, of the nation. The en1814 they published the American Medivoys were cordially received by Talley- cal and Philosophical Register. He ocrand, in the name of the first consul, cupied the chair of materia medica in and all difficulties between the two na- the College of Physicians and Surgeons, tions were speedily adjusted. A conven- and, visiting Europe, was a pupil of the tion was signed at Paris (Sept. 30, 1800) celebrated Abernethy. After filling variby the three envoys and three French cus professorships until 1826, he devoted commissioners which was satisfactory to himself to the practice of his profession both parties. The convention also made and to literary pursuits. Dr. Francis a decision contrary to the doctrine avowed was probably the author of more biogand practised by the English government, raphies and memoirs than any American that free ships make free goods." This of his time, and was active, as one of affirmed the doctrine of Frederick the Great, enunciated fifty years before, and denied that of England in her famous "rule of 1756.” the founders, in the promotion of the objects of the New York Historical Society and of other institutions. He was the first president of the New York France, THREATENING ATTITUDE OF. See Academy of Medicine, and was a member ADAMS, JOHN. Franchere, GABRIEL, pioneer; born in Montreal, Canada, Nov. 3, 1786; was connected with the American fur company organized by John Jacob Astor, and did much to develop the fur trade in the Rocky Mountains and the northern Pacific coast. He published a History of the Astor Expeditions, in French, which was the first work containing detailed accounts of the Northwest Territory. When he died, in St. Paul, Minn., in 1856, he was the last survivor of the Astor expedition. Franchise. See ELECTION BILL, FED ERAL. Francis, CONVERS, clergyman; born in West Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 9, 1785; graduated at Harvard in 1815; became pastor of the Unitarian Church in Watertown, Mass., in 1819. Among his writings are Historical Sketch of Watertown; Life of John Eliot in Sparks's American Biographies; Memoirs of Rev. John Allyn, Dr. Gamaliel Bradford, Judge Davis, and Sebastian Rale, etc. He died in Cambridge, Mass., April 7, 1863. Francis, DAVID ROWLAND, merchant; born in Richmond, Ky., Oct. 1, 1850; graduated at Washington University, St. Louis, in 1870; governor of Missouri in 1889-93; appointed Secretary of the Interior in 1896. of numerous scientific and literary societies. He died in New York City, Feb. 8, 1861. Francis, JOSEPH, inventor; born in Boston, Mass., March 12, 1801; invented a number of life-boats, life-cars, and surfboats, which came into general use. In 1850, when the British ship Ayrshire was wrecked on the New Jersey coast, 200 persons were saved by means of his life-car. The only loss of life was that of a man who would not enter the car. He died in Cooperstown, N. Y., May 10, 1893. Francis, TURBUTT, soldier; born in Maryland in 1740; a son of the noted Tench Francis; was a colonel in the British army previous to the Revolutionary War, but resigned to fight on the side of the Americans. He died in 1797. Franking Privilege, THE, was a privilege of sending and receiving letters post free given to members of the British Parliament and of the Congress of the United States, and to certain public functionaries. This privilege was abused, and it was abolished in Great Britain in 1840. Congress bestowed upon Washington, on his retirement from the office of President of the republic, the privilege of free postage for the remainder of his life. This privilege has been extended to all subsequent Presidents, and also to their widFrancis, JOHN WAKEFIELD, physician; ows. The franking privilege was abolished born in New York City, Nov. 17, 1789; in the United States in 1873, and each of graduated at Columbia College in 1809; the executive departments was supplied began business life as a printer, but with a special set of postage-stamps for commenced the study of medicine, in its official communications. This plan 1810, under Dr. Hosack, and was his also was abolished, and now official compartner until 1820. From 1810 until munications are sent by the departments in unstamped "penalty" envelopes, and return to their duty; and the Assembly Senators and Representatives are per- passed an act of oblivion as to all who mitted to have mail packages forwarded should submit. But the provisional consimply bearing their name or frank. Let- stitution of Frankland, based upon that ters of soldiers and sailors in active ser- of North Carolina, was adopted (Novemvice or inconvenient stations are forward- ber, 1785) as a permanent one, and the ed free of postage, when properly marked. new State entered upon an independent Frankland. In 1784, North Carolina career. Very soon rivalries and jealousies ceded her western lands to the United appeared. Parties arose and divided the States. The people of east Tennessee, people, and at length a third party, favorpiqued at being thus disposed of, and feel- ing adherence to North Carolina, led by ing the burdens of State taxation, alleg. Colonel Tipton, showed much and increasing that no provision was made for their ing strength. The new State sent William defence or the administration of justice, Cocke as a delegate to the Congress, but assembled in convention at Jonesboro, to he was not received, while the North Carotake measures for organizing a new and lina party sent a delegate to the legislatindependent State. The North Carolina ure of that State. Party spirit ran high. Assembly, willing to compromise, repealed Frankland had two sets of officers, and the act of cession the same year, made civil war was threatened. Collisions bethe Tennessee counties a separate military came frequent. The inhabitants of southdistrict, with John Sevier as brigadier- western Virginia sympathized with the general, and also a separate judicial dis- revolutionists, and were inclined to secede trict, with proper officers. But ambitious from their own State. Finally an armed men urged the people forward, and at a collision between men under Tipton and second convention, at the same place, Dec. Sevier took place. The latter were de14, 1784, they resolved to form an inde- feated, and finally arrested, and taken to pendent State, under the name of Frank- prison in irons. Frankland had received land. A provisional government was its death-blow. The Assembly of North formed; Sevier was chosen governor Carolina passed an act of oblivion, and (March, 1785); the machinery of an in- offered pardon for all offenders in Frankdependent State was put in motion, and land in 1788, and the trouble ceased. Virthe governor of North Carolina (Martin) ginia, alarmed by the movement, hastened was informed that the counties of Sulli- to pass a law subjecting to the penalties van, Washington, and Greene were no of treason any person who should attempt longer a part of the State of North Caro- to erect a new State in any part of her lina. Martin issued a proclamation, ex- territory without previous permission obhorting all engaged in the movement to tained of her Assembly. Franklin, BENJAMIN, statesman: born printing material. He was deceived, and in Boston, Jan. 17, 1706. His father was remained there eighteen months, working from England; his mother was a daughter as a journeyman printer in London. He of Peter Folger, the Quaker poet of Nan- returned to Philadelphia late in 1726, and tucket. He learned the art of printing in 1729 established himself there as a with his brother: but they disagreeing, printer. He started the Pennsylvania GaBenjamin left Boston when seventeen zette, and married Deborah Read, a young years of age, sought employment in New woman whose husband had absconded. York, but, not succeeding, went to Phila- For many years he published an almanae delphia, and there found it. He soon at- under the assumed name of Richard tracted the attention of Governor Keith Saunders. It became widely known as as a very bright lad, who, making him a Poor Richard's Almanac, as it conpromise of the government printing, in- tained many wise and useful maxims, duced young Franklin, at the age of mostly from the ancients. Franklin was eighteen, to go to England and purchase soon marked as a wise, prudent, and saga |