of powers between the Federal and the state authorities, party government has proved indispensable in the operation of the government of the United States. It is necessary, therefore, that any party which desires to carry out a policy shall secure unity in the three departments of the Federal government and also in the state governments through which national functions must often be performed. A party finds it essential not only to secure control of the Federal government, but also to become powerful and influential in the states where supplemental legislation is often required and where effective action can be secured only by party harmony. Thus the theory of the separation of powers has tended to render party control necessary to secure harmony between the legislative and executive branches of the government. Without co-operation between the legislative and the executive departments, the machinery of government cannot be successfully operated. In England the legislative and executive departments are combined, and with the aid of the Cabinet unity is secured in legislation and administration. In the United States, such co-ordination must be obtained outside of the law. Instead of establishing unity and harmony in a formal and constitutional manner, they are obtained in an informal and extra-constitutional arrangement. The possibility of a breach between the executive and the legislature is thus prevented, except occasionally, by political parties. In accomplishing unity, the party system fulfills its best end and thereby prevents the turmoil which would result from a lack of harmony between the legislative and the executive authorities.1

Extra-Legal Growth of Parties in the United States.-In no other country have party organization and machinery been developed to such a degree as they have been in the United States. This remarkable growth has taken place contrary to the intentions of the makers of the Federal

1 For an interesting presentation of this point of view consult F. J. Goodnow, Politics and Administration (The Macmillan Company, 1900).

Constitution, who believed that political parties were undesirable. But notwithstanding the fact that the Constitution and laws were designed to operate without parties, the advisability and necessity of some form of political organization for the purpose of controlling the government were early admitted and acted upon by the leaders of opposite interests and diverse habits of political thinking. The machinery which was to put into operation this extra-legal method of directing the government, and which has continued to function as such, involves some of the most interesting and important phases of popular government. Just how this extra-legal machinery may best be made to serve the purpose which occasioned its incipiency, is a matter of moment to persons prominent in public affairs and should be of as much interest to the average citizen. The characteristic phases of this informal party organization have been the growth of the caucus, the convention, and more recently the direct primary.

The Caucus.-Informal and semisecret caucuses seem to have been held frequently in Colonial and Revolutionary times, and were used as party devices very early in the political history of the United States, as is evidenced by the comment of John Adams relative to the Caucus Club of Boston.1 At first, the chief purpose of the caucus as a form of party organization was the nomination and election of candidates to offices, for which no provision was made in laws and constitutions. Various methods were followed in the nomination of officers, the most important of which were self-announcement (where a person presented himself as a candidate for office), and selection by caucus. The informal caucus, which, according to Adams, met and nominated party candidates, was superseded by the more

"In the garret of Tom Dawes," said Adams, "they smoke tobacco until you cannot see from one end of the garret to the other. There they drink flip, I suppose, and they choose a moderator who puts questions to the vote regularly; and selectmen, assessors, collectors, fire wardens, and representatives are regularly chosen before they are chosen in the town." John Adams, Works (Boston, 1856), vol. ii, p. 144.

definite system of nomination provided by the congressional caucus for the Union and by the legislative caucuses for the states. The nominations were made, as a rule, by similar methods, each party in the legislature gathering in the caucus and selecting candidates for the various national and state offices.

On account of the secret methods which were practiced and of the fact that the caucus was clearly not in line with the constitutional provision for the election of President, the caucus proved unpopular from the beginning. It became the center of attack by the growing Democratic party of the pioneer states of the West, and was the issue in the campaign for the election of Jackson when he rallied his supporters on a platform to overthrow King Caucus.

Although it is supposed to have been abolished officially, the caucus as a device for the conduct of business within the party continues as one of the most powerful agencies of government. Not only does a small group of each party prepare the program of action for the party and submit it for adoption, but some very important government functions are in actual practice performed by the caucus, after which mere formal approval is publicly accorded. The caucus selects the Speaker of the House of Representatives, approves the selection of the chairmen of all of the important committees in Congress, and outlines the main policies to be formulated into law before a regular session of Congress convenes. And then, in solemn and formal manner, the acts of the majority caucus are passed as the acts of each House of Congress, the minority usually registering its opposition, the main lines of which have also been determined in the caucus of the minority members. Likewise, the party program in state, county, and city is prepared in local party caucuses. Thus the effort to kill King Caucus merely resulted in checking some of the power of this ancient political device.1

1 Report on the work of the caucus preceding (a) the last session of a state legislature, (b) the last regular session of Congress. Consult newspapers.

The caucus as a regular system of nomination in both state and nation, was overthrown, however, in the latter part of the decade from 1820 to 1830. For a while there was no definite system of party organization, and a rather informal method of nomination was pursued, candidates being placed in nomination by local or state conventions or by mass meetings. With the decline of the legislative caucus came a feeling of distrust for party leaders and a refusal to do their bidding. There was an urgent demand for a more democratic organization of parties, and the process of nomination then in use was objected to as being unauthoritative. This general dissatisfaction with the congressional caucus and with the informal methods of nomination which followed after the abandonment of the formal caucus led to the formation of the nominating convention, which has since become so important a factor in American politics.

The Convention.-The first national convention was held by the Anti-Masonic party in 1831. The idea proved to be so popular that in 1832 both of the leading parties, National Republicans and Democrats, called conventions. From this date, with few exceptions, the candidates of all parties for the Presidency and the Vice-Presidency have been nominated by conventions. The convention system, which turned out to be advantageous for national political purposes, was soon employed for similar purposes in state and local organizations, and these local conventions became closely connected with the national conventions.

The three functions which the convention performs are, first, to formulate party rules and procedure and to select candidates for the important offices in the states and in the nation; second, to adopt statements of principles and policies commonly known as the party platform; third, to choose permanent party officers and the committee or committees to direct the campaign for the election of a party ticket and to provide for the calling of subsequent conventions. It thus became the legislature for the party,

to which was delegated the authority of determining party policies and of choosing party officers. The basis for representation in the convention is either the county or the legislative district. Delegates may be apportioned among the counties or districts either according to population or according to the respective number of votes cast at the last election. The convention system very soon exercised control over all of the important offices, divisions, policies, and administration of government in the United States.1 Though the convention system has succeeded the informal and formal caucuses of an earlier period, the direction and control of the conventions still lie within the domination of an inner circle not so vitally different from the old-time caucus.

Party Committees.-Under the convention system, there developed a hierarchy of committees which constitutes the extra-legal political machinery by which party interests are guarded and by which party campaigns and elections are conducted. At the top of this hierarchy is to be found the national committee, which is composed of a party representative from each state and territory, and at the head of which is a chairman who is the recognized leader of his party. The national committee provides for the national convention, formulates the method of procedure, and diffuses propaganda necessary to a successful party campaign. Below the national committee are the congressional committee, which has charge of party interests at the congressional elections between presidential campaigns; the state central committees; and the assembly, district, county, city, and ward committees. Forming a network reaching from the centers of political activity to the most remote corners of the country, this extra-legal machinery is ever in action, promoting the interests of the party and looking toward the election of the men of its choice. The personnel of these committees usually con1 Report on the preparation for and the holding of the recent national convention. Consult newspapers and magazines.