such a canal has been roughly computed, and is found to be about 266,228,000 cubic yards. The cost of such a canal, including a dam at Alhajuela and a tide lock at Miraflores, near the Pacific end, is estimated at not less than $240,000,000. Its construction would probably take at least twenty years."

Many other, and forcible arguments, have been advanced against the sea level type and the weight of expert opinion now decidedly favors the course that has been followed. At the time, however, it was an open question with the balance of public sentiment inclined toward the simpler form of structure.

Before long it became apparent that the Commission was not working smoothly. Its number and its composition were such that work could not readily be apportioned and responsibility divided among its members. The charges of inefficiency that were widely made against the body were not justified by the facts. The press and people of the United States had no idea whatever of the conditions that prevailed on the Isthmus. They expected the Commission to go down and begin excavating at a rapid rate without delay. Admiral Walker and his associates, on the other hand, knew that the wiser

course was to make thorough preparations and to get a clear idea of the task to be performed before plunging vigorously into the work. Unfortunately they yielded to the insistent demand to "make the dirt fly" and brought serious trouble upon themselves in consequence.

In January, 1905, President Roosevelt applied to Congress for more power in the organization of the personnel of the Canal operation. He declared that "the general plans for the work must be agreed upon with the aid of the best engineers of the country, who should act as an advisory or consulting body. The consulting engineers should not be put upon the Commission, which should be used only as an executive instrument for the executive and administrative work. The actual work of executing the general plans agreed upon by the Commission, after receiving the conclusions of the advising engineers, must be done by an engineer in charge; and we now have an excellent engineer.

Congress passed a bill in accordance with the President's wish, but it failed to go through the Senate. The President then asked for the resignation of the entire Isthmian Canal Commission and reformed that body, placing the direc

tion of affairs in the hands of an Executive Committee, consisting of three of the seven members. Theodore P. Shonts, a prominent and practical railroad official, was made Chairman, with general supervisory powers. John Wallace retained the position of Chief Engineer and was made a member of the Commission with full control of the construction. The third member of the Executive Committee was Judge Magoon, who was made Governor of the Canal Zone.

It was believed that with this change a great improvement in general conditions would be seen. The need for strong and efficient control was urgent. The organization and morale of the force were far from satisfactory. The men went at the work in a half-hearted manner. These shortcomings Mr. Wallace attributed to the frequent interferences with his plans, leading to the impression among his subordinates that their superiors were vacillating and wanted confidence in the enterprise. An epidemic of yellow fever broke out, creating a panic which was with difficulty prevented from becoming a stampede. In the midst of these conditions, Mr. Wallace amazed the country by resigning his position without warning.

The change in the management of the Canal operation had been made largely with a view to giving to the Chief Engineer the greater degree of independence and responsibility which he had demanded. He had expressed himself as quite satisfied with the new arrangement, but it had hardly been in force two months when he threw up his position without any adequate explanation.

The resignation of Mr. Wallace was promptly accepted, and John F. Stevens, a railroad engineer with a fine record, was appointed in his place. Mr. Stevens had the advantages of wide experience, strong personal magnetism, executive ability, and the faculty of judging and handling men. His first step was to secure the services of several young engineers who had worked under him in the West. He then proceeded to a thorough organization of the force and effected it in a comparatively short while. For the first time the operation took on an aspect of definite progress.

The question of the type of canal to be constructed still remained to be settled. The President determined to seek the advice of the leading authorities in the world and to that end invited several foreign governments to name

members of an international board to whom the matter should be submitted.

The International Board of Consulting Engineers met at Washington in August, 1905. The members were: Henry Hunter, Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal (nominated by the British Government); Adolph Guerard (nominated by the French Government); Eugene Tincauser (nominated by the German Government); J. W. Welcker (nominated by the Government of the Netherlands); M. L. Quellenec, Consulting Engineer of the Suez Canal; Gen. G. W. Davis (a former member of the Isthmian Canal Commission); Alfred Noble, Chief Engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad; William B. Parsons (a former member of the Isthmian Canal Commission); W. H. Burr (a former member of the Isthmian Canal Commission); Frederick P. Stearns, a leading hydraulic engineer, Gen. Henry L. Abbott (formerly a member of the Comité Technique); Joseph Ripley, Engineer of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal; Isham Randolph, Engineer of the Chicago Drainage Canal. Thus there were five foreigners and eight Americans, each of them a man well qualified to study and pass judgment on the question at issue.