by an act of the legislature of 1901. This act was amended by the legislature of 1903, providing for at least four such schools and providing that the amount of State aid received by each shall equal two-thirds the amount actually expended for maintaining the school during the year, provided that no more than $4,000 shall be apportioned to any one school in any one year. The course of study covers two years, and includes the elements of agriculture, domestic science, political and domestic economy, with the work in composition, literature, United States history, and civics and commercial arithmetic, with farm accounts. Before these schools are entitled to State aid their work must be approved by the State superintendent and the dean of the agricultural college maintained in connection with the State university. Two schools of this class have been organized and maintained under the law. Their creation seems to be fully justified. The instructors of the school improve every opportunity to talk to the citizens of the county on all suitable occasions. An increased interest in agriculture has arisen as a result. A few acres of land for farming purposes is appropriated for the use of each agricultural school.

University of Wisconsin.-The government of the State university is vested in a board of regents, consisting of one member of each Congressional district and two from the State at large (thirteen in all). At least one of these regents shall be a woman, and all are appointed by the governor for a term of three years. The State superintendent and president of the State university are ex officio members of this board. The faculty consists of 228 professors and instructors for the year ending June 30, 1904, and the enrollment of students in each department was over 3,000. The school buildings are of the most commodious character and are constantly being added to. The establishment of the short course for agricultural and dairy students has been of incalculable benefit to the State. Two years of fourteen weeks each are required in order to complete these short courses, and they are open to those who have completed the course of study in the common schools or an equivalent course.

ADMINISTRATION.

State superintendent.—Wisconsin has no State board of education with general power. The State superintendent has general supervision of all public schools. The law until 1903 was to the effect that the term of office should be two years and that he should be nominated at convention and elected at the general election, as other State officers are elected. For many years an effort has been made to have the election of the State superintendent removed as far as possible from politics. For this purpose various amendments to the constitution have been attempted, but not until the fall of 1902 was one passed by a majority vote of the electors of the State. Under an amendment to the constitution women as well as men were authorized to vote on this amendment, which proposes that the State superintendent shall possess educational qualifications as high at least as any required by any certificate which he is authorized to grant, that he must have taught at least five years, and that his term of office shall hereafter be four years. He is to be elected the first Tuesday in April, at the same time the supreme court, circuit, and county judges are elected. The salary is fixed at $5,000 per year. He has general supervision over the common schools of the State, over establishment and management of county schools of agriculture and domestic science, manual training schools, county training schools for teachers, and day schools for the deaf. He must formulate courses of study for schools of all grades and appoint one high school inspector, an inspector of day schools for the deaf, and two graded school inspectors, whose duties are to visit the different schools, examine into their management, organization, courses of study, and equipment, and report to the State superintendent. He also apportions school funds, decides appeals, holds at least one convention of county superintendents each year, and is required by law to make a report to the governor in each even-numbered year containing a statement of the condition of all schools, including the normal schools and the State university. He is also required to appoint a State board of examiners on the last Wednesday in August of each year. This board conducts the examinations for State teachers' certificates. These certificates are of two classes, limited and unlimited. The limited certificate is good for five years, and the unlimited for life, unless revoked by competent authority.

County superintendents.-Each county is under the supervision of a county superintendent. Two counties in the State are divided into two superintendent districts each. The county superintendent will hereafter be elected at the

same time and in the same manner as the State superintendent is elected. He must hold some form of State certificate as an educational qualification and must have had at least eight months experience in a public school. It is his duty to examine and license teachers, visit all schools annually or oftener and report their condition to the board of supervisors of his county and also the State superintendent. Women as well as men may hold this office. The county superintendent may grant certificates of the first, second, and third grade. The branches required for a certificate of the third grade are: Orthoepy, orthography, reading, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, history of the United States, Constitution of the United States, constitution of the State of Wisconsin, physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effect of stimulants and narcotics on the human system, the theory and art of teaching, manual of the elementary course of study for the common schools of Wisconsin, and the elements of agriculture. This certificate legally qualifies the holder for one year. For the second-grade certificate the applicant must pass an examination in all the foregoing branches and also in algebra, physical geography, American literature, and English composition. This certificate is good for three years. For the first-grade certificate the applicant must pass an examination in all the branches above named and also in physics, plane geometry, English literature, and English history. A certificate of the first grade is a legal qualification for five years. The law also provides that certificates may be secured in counties other than the one in which the applicant was examined by transfer of the papers written at the examination to the superintendent of the county in which a school has been engaged.

District board. The district board consists of three members--a clerk, director, and treasurer-each elected for a term of three years. This board has full power to contract with teachers, select text-books on their own motion when a new district is created, and by a majority vote of the electors in case a change is desired in an old district. The members exercise general supervision over the schools of the district. In township districts all the subdistricts

constitute the township board.

City superintendents.-There are 50 cities in the State under city superintendents. These officers are chosen by the board of education for one year. The law requires that no persons shall be eligible to the office of city superintendent who does not possess the legal qualifications required for the principalship of a four-year course free high school.

CHAPTER V.

THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE

AGES.

By JOHN W. HOYT, A. M., M. D., LL. D.

[Author of Official Reports on Education in Connection with the Paris (1867), Vienna, and Philadelphia Universal Expositions, Progress of University Education, Outline Histories of the Universities of Bologna, Oxford, and Cambridge during the Middle Ages, and of a Memorial (to the United States Senate) concerning a National University, etc.]

PREFACE.

The University of Paris holds an important place in the history of higher education during the Middle Ages, surpassing in some respects, especially in the early completeness of its organization, that of the University of Bologna. It has accordingly received a careful study, with such consultation of authorities as the libraries at Washington have made possible, though only such have been mentioned as have seemed entitled to first consideration and were made the author's final dependence.

The volume of this account could have been greatly and readily increased by the inclusion of many details under each heading, but the object has been rather to present such leading facts as are most important, forming an historic outline that would be at once readable and easily remembered. And for the same reason the author has not burdened the account with the great number of references that would have been necessary, if footnotes were used at all.

The following are the authors that have been chiefly relied on: P. Denifle: Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, Paris, Delelain, 1889-1891. Crevier: Histoire de l'Université de Paris, 7 vols., 1761. Bulæus: Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, 4 vols., 1665-1673. Jourdain: Histoire de l'Université de Paris, 6 vols., 1761. Boudousky: Die Universität Paris und die Fremden an derselben im Mittelalter, 1 vol., Berlin, 1875. Thurot: De l'organization de l'enseignement dans l'Université de Paris au moyen âge, 1 vol., Paris, 1850. De Remusat: Abelard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845. Duvernet: Histoire de la Sorbonne, 2 vols., 1790. Rashdall: Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., Oxford, 1895. Compayré: Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities, 1 vol., New York, 1893. Laurie: Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, 1 vol., London, 1886. Matthew Arnold: Schools and Universities of the Continent. Hauréau: Histoire de la philosophie scholastique, 2 vols., Paris, 1880. Rawlinson: The Five Monarchies of the Eastern World, Lond., 1862-1867. Davidson: History of Education, 1893, 1900.

1. ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS--CAUSES.

While it is extremely difficult to determine the origin of the University of Paris with the exactness which attaches to modern institutions, nevertheless quite satisfactory conclusions have been reached, and the originating causes of its rise have been found exceedingly interesting. For convenience, they will be presented as causes general and causes more direct.

I. GENERAL CAUSES.

1. Among the general causes which brought about its establishment we may properly consider

(1) THE MOVING SPIRIT OF THE ONCOMING RENAISSANCE.

The eighth-century awakening, so ably inaugurated and vigorously led by Charlemagne, brought important results in all departments of Europe's intellectual activity. But they were necessarily short-lived, since so soon after his death they were followed by the break-up of the Frankish Empire, with succes

sive and sweeping invasions from the north, and by repeated inroads of conquering armies from Arabia. Moreover, in so far as this earliest renaissance is educationally concerned, the great work done by him in the planting of schools of superior rank, in different parts of Europe, was chiefly, though by no means wholly, as some have thought, confined in purpose to the advancement of the church in the world.

Finally, under this head, history shows that, besides the famous Palace School established at Charlemagne's seat of empire and placed under direction of the renowned Alcuin, brought from York in 782, he founded yet others of almost equal importance, giving them into the hands of eminent prelates; and, while Bulæus, as quoted by Newman, maintains that Charlemagne, having in mind the great schools of Athens, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Berytus, fostered those at Paris, Pavia, and Bologna with the intent to make them equally great, there yet seems no sufficient warrant for such an assumption other than that furnished by the comprehensive views, high aims, and unbounded ambition of the man himself. It certainly has not been shown that in the founding of great schools he either planted one at Paris or had direct part in furthering even the preliminary efforts of the school out of which the University of Paris is now known to have sprung. Nevertheless, the great Charles may justly be credited with the furtherance of agencies whose influence, by transmission from generation to generation, served in some measure to inspire the efforts of noble men in after times.

It is manifest that results of such transcendent importance could not have come in a single decade or a single generation, and that the enthusiasm of one or two brilliant revolutionists was not, as some writers have assumed, equal to so great an achievement.

(2) A LONG LINE OF EMINENT FORERUNNERS.

I mean such men as the great Alfred, most learned sovereign of his time (848-901), who, half a century after the death of Charlemagne, also founded a palace school, with the help of such renowned apostles of learning as Greenbold and Erigena; such men as Lanfrane, of Pavia (1005-1083), whose abilities and zeal in the cause of education won him the archbishopric of Canterbury at the hands of William the Conqueror; as Anselm (1033-1109), pupil of Lanfranc, whose rare genius and devotion made him originator of the scholastic theology, gave distinction to the school at Bec, made him Lanfranc's successor as archbishop, as well as practical reviver of metaphysical studies, and enabled him to profoundly stir the intellect of all Europe; such men as Peter Lombard (1100– 1164), pupil in turn of Anselm and author of the Book of Sentences; and as William of Champeaux (1030-1117), also pupil of Anselm, afterwards archdeacon of Notre Dame, founder of that famous scholastic center, the Abbey of St. Victor, Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne, leading realist of his day, and for a short time teacher of the youthful Abelard, who soon became yet more famous than he.

All these, and others only less distinguished, served to keep the torch which Charlemagne lighted from utter extinguishment during a period of three hundred years. No one of them became actual founder of the University of Paris; but who knows that it did not come a whole century, or even centuries, earlier on their account?

Indeed, when we come to deal more directly with that spirit of the twelfth century renaissance which we have recognized as one of the general agencies concerned in giving origin to the university, we trace it with confidence to these very masters, but more than all to the one last mentioned--that supreme