CHAPTER XI.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN.

[Abridged from a pamphlet, Education in Sweden, published in connection with the Swedish educational exhibit at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and furnished to this Office through the courtesy of N. G. W. Lagerstedt, royal commissioner for Sweden to the Exposition.]

The Kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger section of the Scandinavian peninsula, situated in northwestern Europe. The western and smaller section of the peninsula consists of the kingdom of Norway, which is politically united with Sweden under one monarch. Of the total area of the united Kingdoms (about 300,000 square miles) 172,000 square miles, or approximately 58 per cent, belong to Sweden. Of their total population (about 7,500,000) 5,250,000, or about 70 per cent, are resident in Sweden.

According to vital statistics, the mortality is in Sweden lower and the expectation of life higher than in any other European and probably also any extra-European country.

Sweden exhibits a peculiar mixture of aristocratic and democratic tendencies, of which the latter have the ascendency in our day here, as in other nations. Of social movements in modern Sweden it may be mentioned that our people have most successfully waged war against the abuse of intoxicating liquors, which struggle has attracted great attention also in other countries.

By the wealth of water power of the country, as well as by the great variety of its natural products, Sweden seems to be intended to play an important part in the industrial work of the European nations.

The close connection between education and the church is peculiar to Sweden. As in other respects, so in this, too, the history of Sweden defies theoretical calculations, and of the unfavorable consequences to be prophesied at first sight from such a connection as this only few traces are visible.

Thus church and school in Sweden both come under the ecclesiastical department. Legislation in their interest pertains to the Government and the Riksdag in common, but reglementary ordinances, etc., are issued, according to the constitution, by the Government alone (as a branch of the King's "economical legislation"). The practice has, however, more and more come into vogue for the Government to invite the Riksdag to decide conjointly with it even in these minor questions, and now no alteration of any great importance is carried through without the consent of the Riksdag. Under the ecclesiastical department the diocesan boards (bishop and chapter) have the superintendence of all, both lower and higher, public schools in the diocese. This applies also in part to private schools and institutions, especially such as enjoy a State grant.

The cost of public education in Sweden for 1895 and 1900 is calculated as follows, by E. Arosenius. a

a Reduced to U. S money on the basis of a Swedish crown=26.8 cents.-ED.

Thus, during this period of five years there has been a considerable increase in the expenditure for education. The total cost per inhabitant amounted in 1895 to $1.35, but in 1900 to $1.84; hence an augmentation of 37 per cent. It should be noted that the cost of professional schools, such as military academies, navigation schools, agricultural and commercial schools, etc., is not included in the above figures.

Of the cost for public education the State pays about 38 per cent, while the school districts, communities, and county councils grant 54 per cent. The remaining 8 per cent is derived from the funds of the schools themselves, from term fees, etc.

1. POPULAR EDUCATION.

During the nineteenth century the necessity of an organization of the agencies of popular education, as well as of making common schools compulsory, was clearly perceived. After several decades of strife the latter principle was proclaimed by the first common school statute of 1842. It has been the central effort of the half century passed since then to realize the principles thus advanced as aims of the future. From the early days of compulsory common schools, the vivid interest and zealous labors of Count T. Rudenschöld deserve a place in the grateful memory of the Swedish people. It was mainly due to his influence that in the Riksdag of 18561858 a further comprehensive measure was taken, the carrying out of which was later energetically promoted, especially by F. F. Carlson, ecclesiastical minister in 1863-1870 and 1875-1878. The common school statutes now in operation are of December 10, 1897.

The common schools in Sweden are primarily the concern of the parish. Nevertheless they receive considerable assistance from the State and are under the superintendence of state and ecclesiastical authorities. Every parish constitutes a school district, the legislative authority of which is vested in the church assembly.

The school board performs the functions of preparatory and executive administration; it consists of the rector, who is ex officio president, and of at least four other members (male or female), elected by the church assembly. Once at least during the school year the president of the school board is bound to summon the teaching staff to a conference concerning the interests of the common school in his district.

There must be at least one common school in every district. When possible, the school ought to be divided into two departments, viz., the infant school for new beginners and the common school proper for more advanced pupils. For those who have passed through the complete course at the common school, proper arrangements are made in many places for free continuation courses.

These courses have diverse names and organizations. For pupils who have been through the common school and entered some trade, a so-called continuation school is arranged. This school provides for a yearly instruction of at least 180 hours, distributed on certain evenings of the week, or more centered within one or two short terms. Pupils unengaged in practical work may, on leaving the common school,

continue in the higher division of that school, where extended instruction is afforded. Parallel to this higher division are also the so-called higher common schools, of which, however, only a few exist. They are independent institutions of older date than the other continuation courses.

Besides these regular schools, there are others a sort of provisional institution. When certain parts of a school district are so remote that the children belonging to it can not readily avail themselves of the common school, it is allowable to establish in its place minor common schools with a weaker teaching staff and a more restricted course.

Common school inspection.-The immediate inspection of the common schools in a school district devolves on the school board. With the consent of the church assembly the board may elect for its assistance a requisite number of head teachers and a communal common school inspector for the district. The diocesan boards, as ranging above school boards, superintend, each within its district, the conduct and development of institutions designed for popular instruction.

On behalf of the State, such inspection and control is further performed by its common school inspectors. These are appointed for a limited time (six years) by the Government. They are at present 46 in number, and have each a greater or smaller district assigned to them. If the inspector finds defects in the school matters of his district, he reports the case to the school board. If this leads to no result, he may further report to the diocesan board. When a new common school building is to be erected, he should express his views regarding its location as well as the suitableness of its rooms and playground.

Teachers at common schools are either common school or infant school teachers (see above, under "Schools"). The former are partly male and partly female, the latter almost exclusively female. Male and female teachers have about the same rights and duties.

The competency of common school teachers is determined by passing an examination at some State training college for common school teachers. In Stockholm, where infant school classes are not regarded as distinct schools, instruction is imparted in them exclusively by female teachers with this higher certificate of study. For an appointment as infant school teacher, graduation at a training college established for that purpose is required as a rule. In the so-called exercise subjects, i. e., drawing, singing, gymnastics, gardening, and sloyd, instruction is sometimes given by specially appointed teachers, but as a rule these subjects are taught by common school teachers.

TABLE 2.-Number of teachers and pupils in the common schools, a

a Common schools of every kind, see Table 1. In the so-called common schools proper, see Table 1. Teachers in exercise subjects are included in the preceding column, but not here; the number of such teachers in 1900 was 1,006, whereof 350 were men and 656 women.

The examinations for common school teachers can be passed only at the training colleges for common school teachers. The number of such colleges is at the present time 13, viz, 7 for male, and 6 for female students. To every training college belongs a practical school (Öfningsskola), which must contain an "infant school

ED 1904 M-49

department," and, where practicable, also a "higher division of the common school," or a "continuation school."

With respect to qualification, salaries, and pensions, training college teachers rank on the whole with public secondary school teachers; but those at practice schools with those at common schools.

To enter a training college the candidate must be 16 years old, and show on examination that he or she has acquired a tolerably complete common school education. The instruction is free. To poor and clever pupils who have shown commendable industry and good behavior, scholarships (the maximum $40 per annum) are awarded.

The training college course extends over four years. Of the total number of teaching hours 13.8 per cent are allotted to instruction in the Swedish language, 13.2 per cent to religion. Of the remaining subjects, mathematics, history, and geography each take up 9.2 per cent; pedagogics and methodics, 7.9 per cent; natural science, 7.2 per cent, and exercises in the practice of teaching, 6.6 per cent. To these must be added copywriting, with 2 per cent; drawing, with 5.9 per cent; music and singing, with 7.9 per cent; gymnastics, with 7.9 per cent; sloyd, with 7.2 per cent, and gardening and planting, with 2 per cent.

The examination for infant school teachers takes place either at the State training colleges for common school teachers or in special infant school teachers' training colleges. At the State training colleges it may be passed by those who have gone through the first two classes of the training college and have obtained a certificate in religion, Swedish, arithmetic and writing, pedagogies and methodics. The examination here consists of a practical trial in the infant school department of the practice school. A special training college for infant school teachers can be established by the county council, the school district, or by private persons. It must be attached to an infant school. The course of instruction extends over eight months at least, divided into two terms. The final examination, which can not be passed before the age of 18 (and as a rule not after 30), shall take place under Government control.

At every common school there must be at least one male or female teacher in ordinary. This post can only be applied for by a person who is qualified as a common school teacher. The candidate's application is examined by the school board, which can call in one or more of the candidates to show his ability, and then nominates three of them ranking according to merit. The election takes place at the church assembly.

A permanent common school teacher can not be dismissed, unless he has shown lack of ability or carelessness in the execution of his duties, or has misconducted himself to such an extent that he ought not to be retained any longer. In such a case the school board must officially warn him; but if the warning prove ineffectual, then the board can dismiss the culprit from his appointment. After the warning and dismissal, the teacher can appeal to the diocesan board, and, last of all, to the Government.

Nonpermanent teachers are of four kinds, viz, supernumeraries, who teach at common schools and are qualified as teachers in ordinary; assistants, who also teach at common schools, but lack the regular qualification; minor common school or infant school teachers, who are only required to possess qualifications for the infant schools; and exercise masters (i. e., special teachers). Nonpermanent teachers are accepted by the board on conditions mutually agreed to, for a definite time or until further notice.

The salaries for common school teachers in ordinary are, in the first grade, at least $188; in the second, at least $214; in the third, at least $241, and in the fourth, at least $268, with an advance from the first to the second, the third, and the fourth grades after five, ten, and fifteen years' service, respectively. To these must be added

This salary

Every addi

residence and wood for fuel (or a money compensation in lieu of it). brings with it the obligation to teach during eight months of the year. tional month's teaching is paid for by an eighth part of the teacher's ordinary cash salary. In addition, a teacher in a continuation school for one hundred and eighty hours a year enjoys a special salary of $40. For teaching sloyd the salary is fixed at the discretion of the school district.

The minimum remunerations quoted above are the same for teachers of either sex. In towns, as also in many places in the country, the school districts usually assign considerably higher salaries, in which case male teachers, as a rule, are paid more than female.

Teachers in ordinary are entitled to a pension of $200 from the Common School Teachers' Pension Institute, to which the school district contributes an annual subscription. On the other hand, teachers personally subscribe to the widows and orphans' fund, from which those left behind draw a pension. Also nonpermanent. teachers and infant school teachers are now entitled to a pension derived from an "Institution of relief for the aged," established for that purpose.

Pupils.-All parents and guardians are bound to see that their children receive instruction. It is the duty of the school board to attend to the fulfillment of this obligation. The school age is reckoned from the calendar year in which the child reaches the age of 7 till the year in which it reaches 14. Children, however, are exempt from liability to attend common school classes if they receive instruction elsewhere on a par, in accuracy and extent, with that of a common school.

As already mentioned, common schools are divided into infant schools and common schools proper. In the former the course of studies is calculated, according to the official plan for two years, in the common school proper for four years; consequently the compulsory school period is fixed by the school board in most districts at six years.

Children deficient in required knowledge after passing through the common school are still, in so far as they possess normal capacity, held to attend school, even if they have passed beyond the limit of the so-called school age. In certain cases, however, exemption from this rule is made in the way mentioned below as "minimum curriculum."

No children must be prevented by other employment from going through the infant and common school proper, nor by the poverty or unwillingness of their parents or guardians either.

Employers who make use of children's labor must so arrange their work as not to prevent the latter from receiving the prescribed instruction. When parents or guardians lack the means of paying for their children's clothes and maintenance at school, they should be helped by the poor law board. In the event of parents or guardians neglecting to keep their children at school, the children can be sent away from home and intrusted to the care of others, the expenses of their support being exacted from the parents or guardians.

Course of study.-The plan of instruction is fixed for every district by its school board under the guidance of a "normal plan" drawn up by the ecclesiastical department. The rule is that the annual period of instruction for every school shall extend over eight months (thirty-four and one-half weeks) at least.

Every child, however, does not receive so long a period of instruction. When local conditions or want of means prevent the establishment of ordinary schools the instruction of children may be provisionally provided for by "ambulatory schools." In many instances it thus happens that a school district is divided into two or more wards, between which the master moves. The number of wards is restricted as much as possible, so that the teaching in every ward may be annually extended in point of time. The number of ambulatory schools is decreasing. (See Table 1, p.768.)