The qualifications for becoming teachers in the public school are as follows: As regards theoretical knowledge, lectors are required to have gained the doctor's degree in the philosophical faculty at a university. Adjuncts, etc., only the " candidate's" (master's) degree in the same faculty. As regards practical experience, both lectors and adjuncts must have passed a probationary year (Profår).

The appointment of teachers is in the hands of the chapters (in Stockholm in those of the two boards of directors); against their decision complaint may be lodged with the Government. As is the case with the majority of Swedish officials, public school teachers with fixed appointments can not be removed unless upon judicial trial and sentence.

The salaries of the regular teachers are apportioned in five gradations. Five years of service entitles to promotion to a higher gradation from the next lower. A lector's salary thus rises from $670 to $1,206 and an adjunct's from $402 to $938. Ever since the year 1883 the Riksdag has annually granted an increase of salary to the extent of $134, which must be added to the above figures. The Riksdag has, moreover, since the year 1901 granted the teachers, as well as most other State officials, an extra increase of 10 per cent of their salaries. The principals receive at the higher schools at first $1,206, and after ten years of service $1,340; in addition they are provided with a house, or with the rent for a house, and enjoy the abovementioned increase of $134. When a teacher has attained an age which, added to his years of service, makes up the number 100, he obtains a pension-80 per cent of his salary. Widows and children receive considerable sums in pensions out of a fund to which fixed contributions are annually made by the teachers.

During the school year 1899-1900, 27 positions (in drawing and music) in the public secondary schools were occupied by women.

Finances.-Every town where a public school is situated is bound to provide, free of cost, a site for the schoolhouse extensive enough to provide space for the games and open-air exercises of the boys. In certain cases the towns are also under obligation to build and keep the schoolhouse in repair; in other cases, again this duty falls upon the building funds of the schools and of the diocese. Where these have not proved sufficient the Rigsdag has occasionally made a special grant to meet the wants. The Swedish school buildings may in general be said to fulfill, in a high measure, the requirements of practical utility and elegant appearance.

The cost of some recent school buildings (including their fitting-up, but not their site) has amounted to the following figures: The Norrmalm Classical School at Stockholm, $226,000; the Modern School in Gottenborg, $145,000; the school at Vexjö, $85,000; the Modern School in Stockholm, $210,000, and so on.

All students, except such as are unable to do so, or those transferred from other secondary schools, pay a matriculation fee of about $2.50. They also pay a small term fee, from which, however, poor and at the same time promising boys may be partly exempted. The entire yearly amount paid to the school by each student not exempted from any part of the fee is $8. This income is used for the purchase of light, fuel, and school material, for prizes, and for the building reserve fund.

The State expenditure for the public secondary schools for boys of Sweden amounted in 1900 to $1,025,000, or 20 cents per inhabitant and $59.50 per student. With the contributions of the communities (for schoolhouses, aid to the teachers for their rent, etc.), and of the special school funds, the total expenditure for public schools probably amounts to about $1,250,000.

PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS-COEDUCATIONAL SCHOOLS.

In consequence of the small fees demanded in the public schools, private enterprise in higher education has met with considerable difficulties, and the number of

private schools is still small. At present there are only five private schools for boys entitled to furnish university entrance certificates, viz, two in Stockholm, two in Upsala, and one in Lund. Of these, two are coeducational. The main income of these schools, as well as of various smaller institutions with fewer classes, consists of the students' fees; yet some of them also receive State grants. Such grants amounted for 1900 to $9,380.

Aside from the two coeducational institutions referred to, which are complete seeondary schools, there are some twenty other coeducational schools where the instruc tion is about the same as in the public five-class schools. Of these there are three in Stockholm. The others are found, for the most part, in smaller towns or places of greater industrial activity, more important railroad centers, etc. The coeducational schools of Motala and Hedemora may hold final examinations entitling the boys to enter Class VI: 1 of the public schools; the coeducational school of Falkenburg may likewise examine for Class IV.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.

Secondary schools for girls are of recent date in Sweden. With the exception of the Wallin school (Wallinska skolan) in Stockholm and the Kjellberg school (Kjellbergska skolan) in Gottenborg, which were founded during the thirties, they ail came into existence during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Before that time girls were taught at home by governesses or sent to boarding schools. The Higher Training College for Lady Teachers was established at Stockholm in 1861 for the purpose of training teachers both for the school and the family, and in 1864 was opened the State Secondary Normal School for Girls, which is connected with the training college and forms a practice school for its students. With the exception of these two establishments, all the higher schools for girls in Sweden are private institutions.

The Higher Training College for Lady Teachers comprises three one-year classes, in addition to which there is an optional fourth year course. The number of students in each of the obligatory classes is generally 25. In order to obtain admission to the college the applicant must have completed the age of 18 and have passed an examination testifying that she has attained the standard of knowledge which corre sponds to a complete course at an eight years' secondary school for girls (vide below). Of the entire number of hours given in the obligatory classes, about 32 per cent are devoted to the French, German, and English languages; 24 per cent to religious instruction, the Swedish language, history, and geography; 23 per cent to mathematics, natural science, and hygiene; 8 per cent to pedagogics and the methods of teaching, and 13 per cent to singing, drawing, and gymnastics. Some of the subjects are, however, optional. The fourth course of the college is intended particularly for the training of specialist teachers. Each student, therefore, receives instruction only in those subjects which she herself chooses. All instruction at the college is free of charge, and poor and deserving pupils receive small scholarships from the State.

The normal school comprises three preparatory classes for children of 6 to 8 years of age, eight regular classes, and a continuation class, the last chiefly intended for instruction in domestic economy. The pupils of the school pay annual fees, ranging from $20 in the lowest class to $49.50 in the highest. In the continuation class the fee is $27. Of the entire number of lesson hours in the eight regular school classes, 24 per cent are devoted to the French, German, and English languages; 33 per cent to religious instruction, the Swedish language, history, and geography; 15 per cent to mathematics, natural science, and hygiene, while no less than 28 per cent are allotted to writing, drawing, singing, needlework, and gymnastics. Some of the subjects are, however, optional.

In connection with these institutions a school of domestic science was opened in 1893, the pupils being not only those of the continuation class of the normal school,

but also others who wish to qualify for becoming teachers of domestic economy in secondary schools for girls.

Private schools.—The entire number of these schools is about 120, having altogether about 13,000 pupils. Started by private persons or associations, or by communities, they have had perfect freedom to develop in various directions, but have, at the same time, suffered from a lack of guidance and control, and, moreover, often felt the stress of money difficulties. These disadvantages have not remained unnoticed. In 1875 the State made them a grant of $8,000, which grant afterwards became annual and at various times raised, until now it amounts to $93,000. The conditions for enjoying the advantages of this grant are mainly that a certain number of pupils be instructed free of cost or at reduced terms, that the school in question submit to the control of the ecclesiastical department, and that the community or private persons contribute a sum at least equal to the grant made by the State. This annual grant is not to exceed $800 for each school, or for schools instructing in domestic economy at most $938. At present 103 schools enjoy such grants from the State, their combined number of pupils attending the regular classes being 10,694 (besides perhaps 3,000 in the preparatory classes). The fees paid are very different, varying from $11 to $40 in the lowest classes and from $29 to $67 in the highest, all per annum, the classes preparing for university entrance charging even more. In view of the virtually free instruction given to boys in the State secondary schools, these fees must be considered very high.

Several of the private schools for girls have their own school buildings, others are compelled to employ ordinary dwelling houses, which, especially from a sanitary point of view, often leave much to be desired. The length of the ordinary school course varies, but is generally seven to eight years. The number of schools with seven or with eight classes is about the same. Some few schools have only five or six classes. Almost all schools have two or three preparatory classes, in which, with but few exceptions, boys also are taught. About twenty schools have one or more continuation classes.

The subjects of instruction are chiefly the same as in the State Normal School for Girls, one or more additional subjects being, however, introduced into some schools. Very varying is the position given to the different subjects, especially as regards foreign languages. In most schools French is the fundamental language, in others German. During the last few years though there seems to be a tendency to make the French and German languages change places, several schools having of late made German the fundamental language. English is usually the third language taught, though in some schools it ranks second.

The continuation classes are formed for various purposes and therefore very differently arranged, some being intended to prepare for university entrance or for admission to the Higher Training College for Lady Teachers, others to train teachers, or to give the pupils greater insight into various subjects. The university entrance examination can be passed at five of the schools for girls (four in Stockholm and one at Malmö). The right of passing this examination was given to women in 1870. At first very few availed themselves of this right, but during each of the last three years the number has been 50 or more.

In most of the schools there are both men and lady teachers. The men, who, with few exceptions, are teachers also in the State secondary schools for boys, give comparatively few lessons, and are paid per hour. The salaries paid to lady teachers are, as a rule, very low, especially considering the demands made on them. On an average they do not exceed $270 per annum. Most head mistresses get but $320 to $400, besides residence and fuel. A raising of the salaries has, however, in 1902 been decreed by the State as a condition for the receiving of State grants. There are two institutions for pensioning lady teachers.

3. HIGHER EDUCATION.

Sweden has two State universities, viz, in Upsala, founded 1477 (the oldest in Scandinavia), and in Lund, founded 1668, chiefly with a view to promote a closer union of the provinces then newly acquired from Denmark with the rest of Sweden. Both universities are thus, as in England, located in country towns. To make up for the lack of a State university in Stockholm, the capital, private munificence has there established a private university; the same thing has been done also in Gottenborg, the second city of Sweden. Besides this, there has existed in Stockholm since 1815 a medical faculty, the Caroline Institute, founded and supported by the State.

THE STATE UNIVERSITIES.

The universities established by the State are, as already mentioned, the two complete universities of Upsala and Lund and the Caroline Institute in Stockholm, the last named forming only a medical faculty, the greatest of its kind in the country. Like the other State schools, these institutions also range under the ecclesiastical department.

According to statutes of January 10, 1877 (with some amendments, 1891), the highest superintendence of the universities and the Caroline Institute is exercised by a chancellor appointed by the King on the nomination by electors from the three institutions. The chancellor watches over the observance of the statutes, issues instructions respecting the administration of the finances and estates of the universities, and recommends finally and officially in questions of appointments, and, on the whole, in all such measures concerning the universities as are submitted to the decision of the Government. He does not receive any salary, but is entitled to appoint a salaried chancellor's secretary for his office. The representative of the chancellor, and in certain cases an intermediate authority between him and the local academical authorities, is the vice-chancellor, whose office is filled at the University of Upsala by the archbishop and at the University of Lund by the bishop of the diocese of Lund.

The immediate care and supervision of all that concerns the university is exercised by its rector, who is elected for two years at a time by the greater consistory (cf. below) from among the professors in ordinary, and may be reelected. In the absence of a rector, the office is exercised by a vice-rector who is elected in the same way and for the same length of time.

The rector is assisted in the government of the university by the two academical consistories, in which he is the chairman. The greater consistory consists of all the professors in ordinary, and has the care of all the more important affairs of the university, proposes candidates for the filling of vacant professional chairs, grants stipends, etc. The lesser consistory consists, besides the rector and vice-rector, of five other members who are elected for three years. It has to enforce the observance of the prescribed regulations respecting the lectures and examinations, execute the disciplinary authority of the university, etc. There is also a finance committee for the administration of the purely economical affairs of the university.

According to the statutes at present in force (confirmed 1876, altered 1891) the teachers of each of the two State universities are distributed with respect to the different sciences they represent upon four faculties, viz, the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The last named is further divided into two sections, viz, the section of humanistics and that of mathematics and natural sciences. Each faculty or section consists of its ordinary and associate professors, who every academical year, from among its members, appoint a chairman, called "dean." The degrees conferred by every faculty are those of candidate, licentiate, and doctor. Doctors of divinity, however, are named by the Government, without examination. Besides, certain civil-service examinations are passed in the faculties of theology and law.

Professors at the universities are either ordinary or associate, of which the latter have smaller salaries and are not entitled to a pension. There are also permanently appointed laboratory assistants in the various medical and scientific laboratories, an astronomical assistant for each of the observatories, and an assistant in the theological faculty. Besides these, an indefinite number of docents can be appointed for each professorship. The practical instruction in modern languages is given by lecturers. Special teachers, called "instructors," are appointed for the teaching of gymnastics, music, and drawing. .

Appointments.-Vacant professorships are filled either on application or by direct appointment. In the former case the position must be publicly announced vacant. When candidates, within a prescribed limit of time, have applied and presented their testimonials of competency, the respective faculty or section, upon the written argumentation of at least three specialists in the subjects concerned, express themselves regarding the fitness and relative competency of the applicants. Then the greater consistory proposes three of these applicants for appointment in the order of their relative merits. Against this recommendation an appeal may be made to the King. After the vice-chancellor and the chancellor have expressed themselves, the appointment is made by the Government. But if there is a prospect of acquiring for the vacant professorship a scientific man known for extraordinary skill, the respective faculty or section may, before the place is publicly declared vacant, by a majority of two-thirds of its members, determine to offer him the position. In such a case the method of procedure is simplified by sending the recommendation of the faculty, together with the opinion of the greater consistory and of the vice-chancellor, to the chancellor, who presents it, together with his own opinion, to the Government for decision. Laboratory and observatory assistants are appointed in a similar way, only that the chancellor makes the final appointment. Docents are appointed by the chancellor on application, or on recommendation by the professor concerned, after the faculty or section in question has given its opinion. The above system of promotion being, in many cases, considered antiquated, the Government has appointed a committee to propose reforms, and this committee has recently (1901) submitted its report, recommending various changes in existing conditions.

The total number of teachers at the universities and the Caroline Institute amounted in 1900 to 289, of whom 76 were professors in ordinary, 56 associates, 20 laboratory and astronomy assistants, lecturers, etc., and 137 docents. Of the 132 ordinary and associate professors, 14 belonged to the faculty of theology, 15 to the faculty of law, 48 to the faculty of medicine, 31 to the humanistic section of the faculty of philosophy, and 24 to the section of mathematics and natural sciences of the same faculty. Of the whole number, 61 belonged to the University of Upsala, 49 to the University of Lund, and 22 to the Caroline Institute.

The salary of the professors in ordinary is $1,608 (with an advance of $134 after five years of service, and another after ten); of the associates, $1,206, likewise with the two said advances. Assistants in the medical faculties receive $1,206, those in the philosophical faculties and observatories $804. The docents have no fixed salaries, but the State has established for their benefit a number of docent stipends of $402 and $322, which, on the recommendation by the respective faculty, are given by the chancellor to deserving docents for a period of three years, subject to extension. The university lecturers in modern languages each receive a yearly fee of $536. Ordinary professors (but not associates) are entitled to a pension of $1,206 to $1,474 on attaining 65 years of age. This latter amount is given to those who have held their professorship ten years at least. In some cases the Riksdag has granted

a pension of $804 to associate professors. Widows and children of deceased professors (ordinary or associate), as well as those of any deceased official of the universities, receive pensions from special pension funds, to which every official must contribute.