The academical year begins September 1, and is divided into the autumn term (September 1-December 15) and the spring term (January 15-June 1). Both the ordinary and the associate professors are, as a rule, bound to lecture publicly on their science one hour four days a week. All public instruction, whether by lectures or seminary exercises, is free of charge, but the private instruction given for the most part by the docents is paid for. The courses of study are at Swedish universities unusually long. On an average six to eight years are required for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, seven years for the candidate's degree in law, nine years for the candidate's degree in theology (for the ordinary examination for holy orders five years), and for licentiate's degree in medicine as much as eleven years. In part, this condition of things depends upon the comprehensive studies which are required, but in part also upon the somewhat unpractical arrangements in regard to teaching. Attempts have been made during the last few years to find a remedy for the latter defect by the establishment of the socalled propedeutical courses for the preparatory examinations, and at present a royal committee is busy with working out a plan for the reorganization of the academical examinations. Students. To matriculate at the university a student must have passed the university entrance examination (the final examination at a higher state secondary school). Every student must belong to one of the nation societies, or "landskap," into which the body of students has been divided from olden times for the promotion of industry and morality and for mutual aid. At Upsala there are 13, and at Lund 12 "nations," each comprising in the main students from special parts of the country, and each under the control of an inspector chosen by the society itself from among the ordinary professors of the university. At Upsala these societies usually have their own houses (clubs), and the disposal of pretty large funds; at Lund the students possess in common a large building called the academical society's building. The part played by the nation societies in Swedish student life has been notably great and important. TABLE 7.-Number of university students in Sweden, a a According to G. Eneström, and to "Report on the School Question," by N. Hojer, A. Lindhagen, and S. Boije. b In Stockholm. The number of university students in Sweden during the years 1870-1902 is found in Table 7. As may be seen, the total number has varied very much. The decline of late years must be partly ascribed to a decrease in the number of matriculated students, but partly also to a more rapid completion of required courses. Among the total of 2,529 students in the autumn of 1900, 276 belonged to the theological faculty, 443 to the law faculty, 514 to the medical, and 1,296 to the philosophical, in which last number are included students preparing for the preliminary examinations hitherto required for entrance into the three other faculties. Among the students of 1903 (spring) there were 89 women. The total expenses amounted, in 1902, at the University of Upsala to $272,000; at the University of Lund to $152,000, and at the Caroline Institute to $66,000, or, altogether, to $490,000. Of this amount, the universities supplied part from their own funds, viz, the University of Upsala, about $121,000; the University of Lund, about $40,000, and the Caroline Institute, $6,000. As may thus be seen, these establishments possess considerable private means. PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES. As already mentioned, two such establishments, called Högskolor, have been founded of late years, viz, in Stockholm and in Gottenborg, of which the former commenced its work in 1878 and the latter in 1891. The higher direction of the affairs of these institutions is confided to special boards of directors under the superintendence of the chancellor of the State universities. The institutions are placed under a Government control, the University of Gottenborg from its beginning, that of Stockholm only since 1904; the statutes are confirmed by the Government and the presidents of the boards are appointed by the same authority for such a time as in each case may be decided. The directors determine, within the amount of money available, what offices shall exist at the university, and the salaries attached to them. The directors have also the power, after hearing the reports of the council of teachers and selected specialists, to appoint professors, either after application or directly; but the appointment must be submitted to the approval of the Government. Docents are appointed by the board upon the recommendation of the council of teachers and after chancellor's hearing. (A) The University of Stockholm (Stockholms Högskola). The board of directors is constituted in the following way: As aforesaid, the Government appoints 1 member, viz, the president, the Swedish Academy also chooses 1, the Academy of Sciences 2, and the town council of Stockholm 2; the rector of the university is a member ex officio, and the eighth member is chosen by the 7 before mentioned. The immediate direction of the institution is exercised by the rector (chosen by the council of teachers for two years at a time), and by the council of teachers, consisting of the ordinary teachers or their temporary substitutes. At present only the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences has been established. Besides, there are professorships in the history of art and history of literature, and lectures have been given in history, political economy, and other subjects. No examinations have been hitherto passed at the university. Its work has been exclusively in the interest of scientific investigation and education. Yet recently a proposition has been made to secure the privilege of examining for university degrees, which may be decided upon by the Government early in 1904. In the autumn term (1903) there were at the university 9 ordinary professors, 3 temporary teachers, 15 docents, and 7 amanuenses. Of the professors 3 received $1,876, the others from $1,608 to $1,206. Teachers who have reached 65 years of age and been in the service of the university for at least thirty years have a right to a pension amounting to 70 or 80 per cent of the salary at the time of resignation. The academical year of the university begins September 1 and is divided into two terms (September 1-December 15 and January 15-June 15). The professors must give two public lectures every week, and impart the instruction and directions necessary for the pupils' studies. Most of them are also directors of some scientific institution. During the years 1901-1903 the average number of students amounted to, respectively, 47, 55, and 58, and the corresponding number of attendants to 82, 64, and 102. (B) The University of Gottenborg (Göteborgs Högskola), having from the beginning placed itself under Government control (statutes of 1889 confirmed by the Government), has, in consequence of this, received (in 1893), within certain limits, the right of holding examinations for university degrees. The board, consisting of nine directors, is appointed in the following manner: The president, as mentioned above, is nominated by the Government for such a time as in each case may be decided, 4 members are chosen by the town council of Gottenborg, 1 by the Royal Society of Science and Literature in Gottenborg, 1 by the directors of the Gottenborg Museum, and 1 by the ordinary members of the united staffs of the higher classical and modern secondary schools of Gottenborg, all (excepting the president) for three years at a time; the rector of the university is a member ex officio. At present only such teaching is carried on as can be considered as belonging to the faculty of humanistics. Those partaking of the instruction are partly regular students, who have been matriculated after passing the common university entrance examination, and partly specials students, who by permission of the different teachers, and on payment of special fees, attend certain lectures or exercises, and partly auditors, who attend the public lectures free of charge. The number of regular students at the university, during the spring term of 1903, amounted to 85, of special students to 117, and of auditors at the public lectures to 1,576. 4. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Technical education at the present moment holds a very high position in Sweden. With regard to the considerable distances, it were, however, to be desired that schools for elementary instruction within this department became more numerous than now is the case, and also the higher institutions stand in need of being enlarged. Higher scientific instruction in technical subjects is imparted at the Technical High School in Stockholm and at the higher division of Chalmers' Polytechnical College in Gottenborg. In the second rank follow the lower division of the above-mentioned Chalmers' College, the five technical colleges mentioned further on, and a special technical school at Eskilstuna. A multifarious instruction and education are offered at the Technical School in Stockholm; finally, there are about forty lower technical schools in smaller towns. The Technical High School includes special divisions for: (A) machine design and mechanical technology, with a triennial or quadrennial course, or else naval engineering; (B) electrotechnics; (C) chemical technology, with a triennial course; (D) mining, divided into classes for mining mechanics, with a quadrennial course; metallurgy and smelting, with a triennial or quadrennial course, and mining proper, with a triennial or quadrennial course; (E) architecture, with a quadrennial course and the instruction so arranged that the pupils after three years' study have the right to proceed with their studies at the Academy of Arts, and (F) civil engineering, with a quadrennial course. The total number of regular and special pupils was, during the years 1896–1902. (spring terms), respectively 305, 277, 283, 309, 360, 373, and 393. The number of graduates, during the years 1896-1902, was, respectively, 107, 67, 79, 88, 87, 89, and 96. An institution for the testing of materials, with a director of its own, was established in 1896 in connection with the mechanical laboratory. Its object is to test metals, building stone, cement, and above all the strength of various building materials; and such tests are made also for the public according to fees and regulations fixed by Government. Chalmers Polytechnical College in Gottenborg is divided into a lower division with a triennial course; and a higher division with a triennial course and subdivided into five sections or professional schools: One for mechanics, one for electrotechnics, one for technical chemistry, one for the art of building, and one forming a special school for shipbuilding. The number of students during the spring term of 1903 was 431. The five technical colleges impart both theoretical and practical instruction in the elementary branches of technical knowledge to those who intend to devote themselves to industrial pursuits. The course of instruction covers three years; the school year consists of thirty-six weeks. The minimum age of entrance is fixed at 14. The admission examination embraces Swedish, mathematics, history, and geography. Youths who have passed the fifth class of a State secondary school with certificates of knowledge in these subjects, are exempt from the admission examination within a space of two years after leaving the college. The admission fee is $2.50; the term fee, $2.50 at most. The instruction is at each of these schools imparted by 4 lectors, a workshop foreman, and a certain number of associate teachers. The number of pupils amounted during the spring term of 1903 to 416 in all the five schools together. According to the statutes in force, the instruction shall comprise: Mathematics, viz, (a) arithmetic, algebra, planimetry, stereometry, the theory of series and logarithms, plane trigonometry, and the first principles of analytical geometry; (b) descriptive geometry, together with geometrical drawing; (c) practical geometry, surveying, leveling, with drawing and field exercises. Mechanics: (a) The laws of the equilibrium and movement of bodies; (b) the theory of mechanics, machine drawing and design of simple machines and parts of machines; (c) mechanical technology. Natural philosophy: Experimental physics with reference to the most important applications of that science in industries. Chemistry, inorganic and organic, with laboratory work and chemical technology. Mineralogy and geognosy. Swedish and German, English or French, according to the final decision of the different boards of directors. Bookkeeping and the science of commerce. Building: freehand drawing and modeling; work in the workshops. Gymnastics and exercise of arms. The Technical School of Eskilstuna, opened under another name in 1855, was enlarged in 1872, and when, in 1888, the town council had voted a grant to a professional school for finer cutlery and metal industries, these establishments were united in 1890 under the present designation. In the older division, the Sunday and evening school, the instruction embraces: Mathematics as at the technical colleges, with the exception of the first principles of analytical geometry; mechanics, natural philosophy, and chemistry, as at the technical colleges, chemical technology excepted; Swedish, with composition; German or English; copy writing; freehand drawing and modeling; bookkeeping, to meet the requirements of industries; building. In the professional school for cutlery and metal industries: Freehand drawing, with the principles of style; modeling; wood carving; engraving; metal casting; enchasing; embossing; etching; galvanizing; forging; filing, and turning. The Technical School of Stockholm, opened as a private school in 1844, has since been often enlarged and reorganized, and finally, in 1860, became a State school. It was thoroughly remodeled in 1878 and 1879, when its activity was restricted within the limits of purely technical instruction, and when a higher industrial art school and a professional building school were added. The instruction of the higher industrial art school has been grouped in two sections-one for industrial arts (with five professional divisions), the other a training school for teachers of drawing, writing, and modeling. In 1890 was added a professional school of mechanics with seven professional divisions. The school work is carried on in five head departments: (I) The technical evening and Sunday school, (II) the technical school for females, (III) the higher industrial art school, (IV) the professional building school, and (V) the professional school of mechanics. Besides, instruction is imparted in the principles of style, art needlework, professional and decorative painting, photography, form anatomy with drawing, a course for electrical fitters, and gymnastics. During the school year 1901–2 there were 2,171 students, a considerable number, testifying strongly to the importance of this school. The number of teachers was 92, of whom 32 in ordinary. At present a plan is being worked out with the purpose of a further extension and comprehensive changes in the organization of the school, chiefly by dividing it into several educational institutes in different parts of the city. Finally there are the lower technical schools—at present 41 in number-whose activity varies according to the special branches of industry prevalent in the districts where they are located. They are supported mainly by the communities of these places, but stand under State inspection, and also receive State grants, in 1900 to a total amount of $16,000. In 1900 the number of teachers at these schools was 293 and that of the pupils 6,817, of whom 1,275 were females. 5. SWEDISH GYMNASTICS. The Swedish gymnastics derive their origin from Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839). Before his time, it is true, interest had been awakened in favor of a more thorough exercise of the body, but there existed nothing of gymnastics in the present sense of the term. According to Ling's idea, the selection and kinds of exercises must be grounded on the requirements of the body itself. The body itself is consequently the object of, as well as the principal instrument or implement for, the performance of the work to be done. In many exercises, however, external implements are also needed, and these have been devised with exclusive regard to obtaining a good result from the necessary exercises. Through the correct use of the implements it becomes increasingly possible to limit more precisely the form and the scope of action of a movement. This limitation has been called localization, sometimes isolation, to distinguish it from a combination of forces which is also necessary to obtain the effect desired. Such combination has been called synergy or cooperation. What has been done after Ling's death for the consummation of his work has been, for the most part, effected by his immediate successor, Gabriel Branting (1799–1881), and by his son, Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886). Hjalmar Ling represented by very striking drawings, made by himself, thousands of forms of movements, and he formed a collection of these and arranged them, in harmony with his father's plan and views, according to their effect on the organism, into different classes. Ten classes of gymnastic movements are thus shown to exist. Some of these may with advantage be further subdivided into two or more groups. He also drew up lists of movements suited to different ages, and rendered possible pedagogical gymnastics in common schools and in female education. The movements in each of the above-mentioned classes have been arranged in progression according to the degree of effort they call forth. In practice, movements calling for about the same degree of effort should, out of all the classes, be arranged together for a programme of exercises-a so-called "day's exercise"-for daily use. A number of movements requiring less exertion should be inserted among the specific ones from each class so as to fill out the day's exercise into a complete set of gym |