songs of the minstrels, and the tricks of the jugglers, and the antics of the dancing-bear. And sometimes a tournament was held the lords and ladies of the neighbourhood rode over to the castle; turf banks were set for the serfs, and a gallery was erected for the ladies, above whom sat enthroned the one who was chosen as the Queen of Beauty and of Love. Then the heralds shouted, "Love of ladies, splintering of lances, stand forth, gallant knights; fair eyes look upon your deed!' And the knights took up their position in two lines fronting one another, and sat motionless upon their horses like pillars of iron, with nothing to be seen but their flaming eyes. The trumpets flourished; laissez aller,' cried a voice; and the knights, with their long spears in rest, dashed furiously against each other, and then plied battle-axe and sword, to the great delight and contentment of the populace.

"In times of war the castle was also the refuge of the poor, and the villagers fled behind its walls when the enemy drew near. They did not then reflect that it was the castle which had provoked the war; they viewed it only as an hospitable fortress which had saved their lives. It was, therefore, in many cases regarded by the people, not only with awe and veneration, but also with a sentiment of filial love. It was associated with their pleasures and their security. But in the course of time a rival arose to alienate the affections, or to strengthen the resentment of the castle serf. It was the town.

"In the days of the Roman Republic, and in the first days of the Empire, all kinds of skilled labour were in the hands of slaves: in every palace, whatever was required for the household was manufactured on the premises. But before the occupation by the Germans, a free class of artisans had sprung up, in what manner is not precisely known; they were probably the descendants of emancipated slaves. This class, divided into guilds and corporations, continued to inhabit the towns: they manufactured armour and clothes; they travelled as pedlars about the country, and thus acquired wealth, which they cautiously concealed, for they were in complete sub

servience to the castle lord. They could not leave their property by will, dispose of their daughters in marriage, or perform a single business transaction without the permission of their liege. But little by little their power increased. When war was being waged, it became needful to fortify the town-for the town was the baron's estate, and he did not wish his property to be destroyed. When once the burghers were armed and their town walled, they were able to defy their lord. They obtained charters, sometimes by revolt, sometimes by purchase, which gave them the town to do with it as they pleased; to elect their own magistrates, to make their own laws, and to pay their liege-lord a fixed rent by the year, instead of being subjected to loans, and benevolences, and loving contributions.* The Roman law, which had never quite died Dut, was now revived; the old municipal institutions of the Empire were restored. Unhappily the citizens often fought among themselves, and towns joined barons in destroying

Yet their influence rapidly increased, and the power of the castle was diminished. Whenever a town received privileges from its lord, other towns demanded that the same rights should be embodied in their charter, and rebelled if their request was refused. Trade and industry expanded; the products of the burgher enterprise and skill were offered in the castle halls for sale. The lady was tempted with silk and velvet; the lord with chains of gold, and Damascus blades, and suits of Milan steel; the children clamoured for the sweet white powder which was brought from the countries of the East. These new tastes and fancies impoverished the nobles. They reduced their establishments, and the discarded retainers, in no sweet temper, went over to the town.

"And there were others who went to the town as well. In classical times the slaves were unable to rebel with any prospect of success. In the cities of Greece every citizen was a soldier. In Rome an enormous army served as the * Charters were granted to towns by the King only. Louis VI. was the first to give them, as related elsewhere.

slave-police. But in the scattered castle states of Europe the serfs could rise against their lords, and often did so with effect. And then the town was always a place of refuge: the runaway slave was there welcomed; his pursuers were duped or defied; the file was applied to his collar; his blue blouse was taken off; his hair was suffered to grow; he was made a burgher and a free man. Thus the serfs had often the power to rebel, and always the power to escape; in consequence of which, they ceased to be serfs and became tenants.

"The extinction of villeinage was not a donation, but a conquest: it did not descend from the court and the castle; it ascended from the village and the town. The Church, however, may claim the merit of having mitigated slavery in its worst days, when its horrors were increased by the pride of conquest and the hostility of race. The clergy belonged to the conquered people, whom they protected from harsh usage to the best of their ability. They taught as the Moslem doctors also teach, and as even the pagan Africans believe, that it is a pious action to emancipate a slave. But there is no reason to suppose that they ever thought of abolishing slavery, and they could not have done so had they wished."

MONARCHY ASSAILS FEUDALITY.

MIDDLE AGES.

"They

FROM the copious extract given, the reader can hardly fail to obtain a more familiar comprehension of the Feudal System. That system he will now have learned was nothing else than the exercise of arbitrary power by the great landowners called feudal Lords. During the greater part of the Middle Ages, these Noblemen were wholly independent and irresponsible, acknowledging no law but force, and wielding despotic sway over their fiefs or estates; masters equally of the property and lives of their tenants or vassals. were," says a distinguished writer, "isolated despots, each of whom was a sovereign in his own domains, doing what was right in his own eyes, giving no account of his actions, and asking no opinion as to the nature of his conduct towards his subjects. the course of time this system met with greater popular detestation than others which had reduced the people to more monotonous and lasting servitude. The peasants led a precarious and uncertain life, involved in all the quarrels of their chief, and enduring all the vengeance of his enemies. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were numerous peasant insurrections, in which atrocious crimes were perpetrated upon the nobles, their families, and retainers.

In

These led to atrocious retaliations, and we see at this time the beginning of that fierce antagonism between class and class which existed for so long in France, and which culminated at the revolution of 1789.”

There was only one authority in Europe that struggled steadily to check the supremacy of the feudal Nobility: that was the Royal Power. For several centuries in all the States of Europe a conflict was maintained between the Crown and the Barons. In France the Kings, in Germany the Emperors, in Italy the Popes, constantly sought by force or diplomacy to curtail the dictatorship of the Aristocracy; and in each of these countries the Aristocracy as fiercely defended their rights.

The nature of the contest which took place in England between the Crown and the Barons I will reserve for a future chapter, relating here what occurred in France. It was in the latter country that the feudal despots held larger possessions, exercised greater authority, and kept their vassals under better discipline than elsewhere.

When a weak man was on the throne of France, he shrank from any collision with the Barons, lest he might be deprived of his crown; for many of the more powerful carried their ambition so far as to aspire to the Regal Authority. There were many French Kings, however, of ability and courage, who made bold efforts to reduce the exorbitant power of these Lords of the soil.

One of the first who assailed them with success was Louis VI., whose reign, 1108-37, was memorable for the Rise of a Middle Class. At this time there was no such thing as a standing army, and the King had fewer retainers at his command