they ceased to be the sole controlling class. Instead of men looking up to the Church as hitherto, they began now to look up to the Nobles. It was natural enough the Clergy should chafe under this change of position. They discerned plainly that Feudalism was a Secular Government, and that, if it endured, Theocracy was at an end. They foresaw they should be forced to divide the power they had for several centuries monopolized. A struggle ensued between Feudality and the Church, which ended ere long in their reconciliation. The Church found itself weaker and the Barons stronger than was supposed. In fact the power of the Church was declining, because the masses were becoming less ignorant and superstitious.

The Feudal System, and the Birth of the Middle Class, were the two prominent features in France of the epoch known as the Middle Ages. The first I have treated perhaps too copiously; but I have little to relate of the latter, for the reason that their rise as an influential body met with a check which effectually stopped their political development.

It has been already mentioned that Louis VI., 1108, seeing that the inhabitants of the numerous Communes which were springing up all over France might be of service to the Monarchy in its duel with Feudality, purchased their support by the concession of Municipal rights. This policy, as I showed, was followed up by many of his Successors. When, however, the French Kings found that, with the aid of standing armies, they were strong enough to fight the feudal Nobles, and that they could dispense with the Militia hitherto supplied by the Communes, they lost no time in abrogating, one after another, all the privileges they

had granted. Already from the fourteenth century they began curtailing the privileges of the Communes; and in the reign of Charles IX., 1560-74, all jurisdiction over their own affairs was taken from the Municipalities, and they fell under the government of the Crown. By the end of the reign of Henry IV., 1610, "it seemed to be quite forgotten," says a French authority, "that the towns of France had ever possessed any franchises at all."

The Middle Class in France steadily advanced in numbers and opulence, although thus cunningly stript of all political rights when too weak to resist; but they grew up under the domination both of the Crown and their old masters the Nobles, deprived of all Municipal freedom, ignorant of all Political usages; and, therefore, they were deficient in that love of liberty and independence which is inherited from free institutions. The Middle Class of England, as we shall see, had a very different history; and it is owing to this that their political knowledge and influence guarantee to-day the tranquillity of that nation. Indeed, it may be said that the best interests of modern Europe, her repose, and material prosperity, are bound up with the moral and political authority the Middle Class is destined to wield. It is the Middle Class, placed between the upper and lower ranks, and closely connected with both, which is naturally called to exercise the role of arbitrator; obtaining for one all just concessions, and protecting the other from undue exactions.

The French Monarchy, as already stated, after the

* Down to 1870 the French towns were still under the tutelage of the Government, and the Republican party is as averse as the Monarchical to granting them independence.

struggles for centuries with the Papacy and the feudal Nobles, at last overcame both; and when Louis XIV. began in 1661 to govern, he was absolute master of the country. His despotism was above all control: no King of England, Saxon or Norman, ever wielded such arbitrary power. The reign of this Monarch, extending over fifty years, was brilliant: he was able, firm, laborious; skilful in administration; and a friend of letters and arts. He surrounded himself with sagacious Ministers, as Colbert, Louvois; and with great Generals, as Condé, Turenne, Vauban. A galaxy of illustrious writers adorned his epoch, as Racine, Corneille, Molière, Boileau, La Fontaine, Bossuet, Massillon, Fénélon; and the Arts flourished under such great masters as Lebrun and Lesueur. The military successes of Louis were numerous, and added greatly to the French territory. Amongst his other conquests was the province of Alsace, lately lost in the war of 1870. He vastly adorned Paris and its neighbourhood; built the Hôpital des Invalides, the Colonnade of the Louvre, the Palace of Versailles, the Trianons; and founded the manufacture of Gobelins tapestry. In his latter years he fell under Clerical influence, and was induced to revoke the Edict of Nantes, which recognized the Protestant worship. Louis XIV. was the most distinguished Potentate of his time, and was surnamed, Le Grand Monarque.

After his death the Monarchy fell into incompetent hands, and rapidly declined. Moreover, the events that had occurred in England began to reverberate in France, and to stimulate her litterateurs to assail a Despotism that regarded France as little better than a royal domain.

DECLINE OF THE MONARCHY.

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

THE heir to the throne, Louis XV., was but five years old at the death of his great-grandfather, and Philip, Duke of Orleans, was declared Regent, 1715, during his minority. The Regent was a man of brilliant talents, and obtained early distinction in arms. He afterwards occupied himself with Natural Science. While at the head of the Government he effected great reforms; reduced the army; and extinguished four hundred millions of debt. He allowed himself, however, to be dazzled by the seductive financial schemes of John Law, a Scotchman, who proposed to the Regent a plan to liquidate the National Debt.

Law was authorized, 1716, to establish a Bank of Discount, the first of the kind in France. This private bank was created in 1718 a public bank. The shares were eagerly sought after, and rose to 40 per cent. premium; and this may be regarded as the origin in France and Europe of stock-gambling. A Company was organized by Law soon afterwards, and allied to the Bank, which had the privilege to trade with the French possessions on the Mississippi, China, and the East Indies. An immense quantity of paper notes were issued by the Bank, far beyond its real assets; but in three years the bubble exploded, and

great numbers were ruined.

Law was obliged to

leave France, and died in poverty in Venice, 1729. The reign of Louis XV. began in 1723, and was the most discreditable France had ever known. He first engaged in a war against Austria; and afterwards, in 1756, supported by Austria and Russia, he began the "Seven Years' War" against Frederick the Great of Prussia and his ally, England. In this war France was deprived by England of Canada, and all her possessions in the East Indies.

The odious feature of this reign was the baneful influence exercised by two women, Madame de Pompadour, and, afterwards, Madame du Barry, mistresses at different periods of the King, who gave himself up so entirely to their sway, that they controlled the affairs of the State, making and overthrowing successive Cabinets. The scandalous debauchery of Louis brought the Monarchy into contempt; and a movement similar to what happened in England in the time of James I. began in France, headed by many remarkable men, to strip the Crown of its excessive prerogatives. Elizabeth and Louis XV. were the two last Sovereigns who, in England and France, wielded Absolute power.

The striking events which had occurred in England, ending in the substitution of Parliamentary Government for that of the King, had attracted the attention of thinking men in France; and during the reign of Louis XV. many eminent writers went over to London, studied the language, and set to work investigating the contest which had culminated in the downfail of Royal Authority, and the erection on solid foundations of Personal Liberty and Parliamentary Sovereignty. No Parliament existed in France in which to conduct a similar conflict. An