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We have now to make a few remarks on the trading-| shores of the Mediterranean, the first civilized portion of vessels of the ancients; premising that, in natural order, the West, be still the limits with.in which the naval art was this should have come first: as marine vessels originated practised. in the necessity for transport, either of person or goods.. Piracy, or robbery by sea, deemed to be an honourable employment in the infancy of a nation, was excited and encouraged by the convenience thus afforded; and then followed naval war.

The oval form of the merchant ship is, of course, to be referred to the accommodation of passengers, and the stowing away of baggage. It seems to have been flatfloored, broad, and of small draught of water, not very dissimilar to the Chinese junk seen in our day, which is thought by the best reasoning to be only a counterpart of the ancient ship of commerce. The length of the trading vessel was four times its breadth, while the war galley was eight times longer than broad. As the war ship, which had a mast, was distinguished by a helmet thereupon, and a banner at its bow, so a basket, emblematic of its nature, was suspended from the mast of the trading vessel.

The common burden of their best and largest tradingvessels seems to have been fifty or sixty tons, though much larger ones are alluded to; to the accounts of which there is attached the same uncertainty as we previously spoke of in the case of the rowing-galleys. An obelisk of fifteen hundred tons' weight was brought from Egypt to Rome, and placed in the Circus by Constantius, where it now stands. The same vessel carried, we are told, more than eleven hundred tons of pulse, placed at one end of the ship to balance the stone at the other. Such vessels as these, called Ætnas, or moving mountains, were not valued for ordinary use, being too cumbrous and unmanageable, Merchant-vessels having to pass from one country to another, were chiefly governed by sails, as mere transports were towed along the banks of rivers by cords.

We are not well informed what convenience the ancient mariners had for sleeping in their ships. Berths, for the convenience of passengers on board the foreign tradingships, seem to have been made at the sides of the vessel, as with us; see Jonah i. 5: but we infer that the restingplaces of the sailors themselves were of a chance-like nature, and no wonder that it should be so, as ancient navigation did not permit vessels to be long out at sea, or far from land. Ulysses, we read in Homer, slept on skins at the stern, and the rowers who, in the course of time, were selected from slaves or malefactors, reposed upon the benches where they had toiled. Any superior accommodation seemed likely to deteriorate the hardihood of the sailor; and Alcibiades the Athenian commander, Plutarch tells us, was censured for having on board a bed hung upon cords!

AN ANCIENT VOYAGE.

HAVING hitherto confined ourselves, in great measure, to the vessel and its detail, we pass on to the consideration of the ship, or fleet of ships, when making way over the waters; so that the observations which we shall here make will not relate to any particular order of shipping, unless so far as shall be specified at the time

The invariable time for sailing was that of Summer, when the heavens were genial, and the light of day exceeded the darkness of night; the means and experience of the ancient mariners did not permit it to be otherwise. Even with a smooth sea and fair wind, they could not for ages venture out of sight of the land, lest, in the apparently interminable waste of waters, they might be drifted about for ever: their voyages, therefore, to which they were tempted by trade and commerce, were a continual coasting; and vessels were, in certain circumstances, even towed along: being also often necessitated to land for provisions, they would not be long at a time out at sea, a thing which even the superstition of the sailors would have forbidden. Superstitious fears seem to have haunted sailors from the earliest to the present time; but these are, we trust, fast fading before the cheering light of the Divine Word.

It was an article of belief among the ancients, that a soul which had departed from a body unhonoured with the rites of sepulture, was condemned to wander in sorrow for a hundred years on the banks of the infernal river Styx, ere it could be admitted to a resting-place of bliss; being, therefore, in their landskirt voyages, at the mercy of the people of the coast, and impatient at the close confinement and restriction of the ship, having also their religious dread of the unfathomable and heaving deep, we need not be surprised that ages upon ages should pass away, and the

When a voyage was contemplated, the ships, whico nad in all probability been hauled up on dry land, were pushed into the sea by the shoulders of the mariners, or by levers; or latterly, by means of a rolling-machine called a helix, invented by Archimedes, about 200 years B.C.

A fleet, or number of ships, being, therefore, about to set sail, every proceeding connected therewith became matter of religious parade and solemnity. Sacrifices having been performed, and each ship committed to the care of some deity, omens and prognostics were observed, and the trivial nature of some of them is such as to create a smile. The perching of a swallow on the mast, or the sneezing of any person to the left, would so perturb the minds of these enterprising sailors, as to delay the departure till the following day. When, however, nothing had occurred to mar the resolution of the voyagers, the ships were unmoored, and departed with oars or sails, or, perhaps, both, decked with flowers and garlands, and attended with prayers to Neptune and the other gods, from the voyagers and their friends remaining at home. When they had got a little out to sea, doves were let loose from the ships, which flying back to land, were hailed as omens of the safe return of the crew. The ship of the commander usually sailed on foremost, conspicuous for its gaudy ornaments: the others followed in order, and, when fairly out at sea, sailed three or more abreast, or alongside of each other, unless the weather grew rough and the sea unsteady; in which case they would keep off from one another, in order that the manoeuvres of each vessel might not be hindered. Excepting under very favourable circumstances, they did not continue sailing through the night, but anchored in some cove or sheltered spot; or they drew up their ships on the beach, that all in the vessel might repose until the returning dawn. If they actually got out of sight of land, it was with the view of directing their course towards some headland, which they knew to lie in a certain direction.

In the progress of ages, as the knowledge of astronomy advanced, and various observations of the heavenly bodies were made and collected, the situations and bearings of places were, by these means, naturally attempted to be surmised. To navigate safely, and to trust oneself with confidence upon the pathless ocean, it is necessary to have always ready at hand, a safe and uninterrupted guide to the relative situations of places. Though it appears that the general principles of the loadstone were well known many ages before the Christian era, yet the polarity of a suspended needle was never dreamed of among the active nations on the western side of the ancient hemisphere, until within the last five hundred years. The early missionaries to China found that the compass had long been in use in that country; but that curious people seem to have been the first to attain, in ancient times, a certain point of civilization, beyond which they have never sinee advanced. So that the ancient sailor, who had the greatest skill and means which his art afforded, could look only to the heavens for assistance; and they, oftentimes, in the midst of his greatest difficulties, were obscured. To navigate in such circumstances would be similar to walking with the eyes shut; it was natural for him, therefore, to cling to the coast, and scarcely venture off from the earth by night. But, after awhile, in addition to the motions of the sun and moon, it had been observed that certain stars towards the north never sunk below the horizon, but seemed to move continually round a definite point. The ancient Greeks noticed the constant revolution of the seven conspicuous stars, forming the hinder part of the Great Bear; but it appears that the commercial Phoenicians had already more closely tracked up the northern point of the sky by directing their attention to a set of stars, which kept on revolving in smaller circles than those observed by the Greeks. This was the constellation called the Little Bear; at the tip of the tail of which animal is situated a star, now called the Pole Star. This is the nearest plainly visible star to that point which is in a line with the pole of the earth, infinitely extended northward. When the use of these observations had been made familiar by practice, the nautical art advanced considerably, and various schemes of enterprise were formed, and effected with more or less

success.

It has been well observed that it is a distinctive feature

See Saturday Magazine, Vol. III., p. 115.

in modern Navigation, as compared with that of the ancients that the method of conducting a ship now from place to place, as depending upon definite and distinct rules, is much more safe and simple, and requires, perhaps, less training and study, while it effects much more than the method of the ancients. The naval officers particularly offering themselves to our notice by their official variation from the moderns, are the master of the rowers, and the pilot. It was the business of the former to attend to the rowing department of the vessel, to assign their places to the rowers, to encourage them in their labours, and to keep time to the motion of the oars, by the strokes of his mallet, or the musical intonations of his voice. The other officer, who especially claims our attention, is the pilot, or master of the ship; to whom belonged the duty of navigating the vessel, and who was consequently responsible for the safety of the ship, and all on board. His place was at the stern; and to excel in his vocation, he had to possess an exact knowledge of his art, which consisted chiefly in skill in steering, in managing the sails, and in the use of other nautical appurtenances, together with a knowledge and experience of the winds, of the heavenly bodies, as indicating the seasons, portending the weather, and directing the course of the ship, and of the site of commodious ports and harbours; when rocks and quicksands were to be dreaded, and how they might be avoided. The ancients retired into harbour when they saw the Winter signs begin to rise; where they remained till the constellations of Spring invited them upon the waters. It was not usual, therefore, for them to prosecute their voyages long after the Autumnal Equinox. The gales which then prevailed in the Mediterranean, formerly called Euroclydons, or Tuffoonest, but now Levanters, or Michaelmas flows, being hazardous to shipping, made them lie by for the Winter. The necessity of this is alluded to in Acts xxvii. 9. The Jewish fast of expiation, which is there meant, was on the 25th of September. It was also necessary for the pilot to understand and explain the signs and prognostics which offered themselves from the sea-birds, the fishes, the surge, the billows dashing upon the shore, and the waving of the woods on the impending heights. A seaman, unapt in the solution of any novelty of this sort, could not attain to the reputation of a good pilot.

It was also expected that this personage should have procured an ample supply of favourable winds; as the Lap

lander captain of our times buys of the wise women a quantity of this necessary material for navigation. We are told that Ulysses, having procured a bag of wind, was returning home to Ithaca with a prosperous sail. When his native isle was just in sight, and the hero had fallen asleep through fatigue, the bag was opened by the sailors, who suspected that treasure was concealed in it: whereupon the winds rushed forth with awful violence, and drove the ship backward a distance of ten days' sail.

At the termination of a voyage, the vessels were usually stranded by urging them stern foremost towards the land, when the crews drew them up out of the water by main force,

The notion of light-houses seems to have been generally adopted about the time of the Christian era from the Egyptians. The small island of Pharos, in the bay of Alexandria, had been joined to the continent by a causeway of a mile in length, about 284 B. C. At the extremity of this mole was built a white marble tower, at the top of which a fire was kept constantly burning, visible, we are told, at the distance of one hundred miles; but this would make it to have been somewhat more than a mile in height from the surface of the earth, unless, indeed, it were visible from some eminence a hundred miles distant. This part of the account seems apocryphal, and even the site of the celebrated Pharos is a matter of dispute. The pride of man has doubtlessly exaggerated the facts of many ancient narratives; and from this, perhaps, as well as from many other classical stories, we must make considerable deduction but, at any rate, we have accounts of various erections of this nature, and they seem at the later period of ancient navigation to have been not uncommon, when ample experience had made nocturnal sailing less formidable. We find them accordingly erected at most of the harbours and naval stations which ships frequented; places where nature had been assisted by art, and where the larger-sized ships rode at anchor, secure from the swell of the seas around.

The ancients generally, as well as the barbarians of modern times, carried their idols with them on a voyage, thinking thereby to ensure the safety of the ship. Vows, therefore, which had been made previously to, or during the voyage, were now discharged, and especially was due reverence paid to Neptune, whose peculiar dominion they had just safely left. Those who had landed in safety after a storm, or any other of the manifold hazards of a seavoyage, hung up in one of the numerous temples surrounding the port, a picture of their disaster, together with the garments in which they had escaped it. This, with a multitude of other Pagan customs, has been exploded by time in most of the countries of the world; but we learn that this act of piety is still practised on the coasts of the Mediterranean, where the people profess the Roman Catholic faith. Happy would it have been for the human race, if no heathen custom more questionable than this, had received the sanction of the teachers of Christianity in the ages succeeding the times of the Apostles!

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ANCIENT ROMAN WAR GALLEY,

LONDON:

JOHN WILLIAM PARKER,, WEST STRAND. PUBLISHED IN WEEKLY NUMBERS, PRICE ONE PENNY, AND IN MONTHLY PART PRICE SIXPENCE

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MASANIELLO, THE FISHERMAN, AND THE REVOLUTION OF NAPLES.

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PART THE FIRST.

THE LAZZARONI OF NAPLES.

THERE are few kingdoms in Europe which have undergone so many vicissitudes as that of Naples; and the chief source of its calamitous changes was the preposterous claims of the popes to dispose at their pleasure of the crown. After the overthrow of the Hohenstauffen, a dynasty remarkable for its uncompromising hostility to the papal usurpations, the sovereignty of Naples was bestowed upon the house of Anjou; but this French race of princes soon became unpopular, and after many changes and convulsions, the Neapolitan dominions were annexed to the kingdom of Spain, then rapidly rising into the foremost rank of European states. It remained quietly subject to Spain for nearly 150 years, until in the year 1647, a poor fisherman raised a revolt, which entailed upon it additional misery. The history of this extraordinary revolution is so very interesting, and so very instructive, that we shall relate it at full length, especially as some of the most important details have been hitherto hidden from English readers. To understand the causes of the revolution, it will be necessary to give a preliminary sketch of the Spanish tyranny over the Neapolitans.

VOL. XII

When Spain first acquired dominion over Naples, the latter country, notwithstanding recent wars, was wealthy and populous; and its position afforded a reasonable prospect of increasing prosperity, for it possessed the finest ports in the Western Mediterranean, then the great high-road of commerce. Spain, on the other hand, was exhausted by long wars against the Moors, the recent discovery of America had seduced a large portion of the population to emigrate to the new countries, and the gold and silver imported from Mexico and Peru did not compensate for the abstraction of cultivation from the land, the emigration of the most industrious, and the consequent cessation of domestic improvement. these circumstances the Spanish government regarded its Neapolitan territory as a kind of reserved treasury by which all the pecuniary deficiences of Spain might be supplied and the chief object of their administration was to drain as much money from their Italian subjects, as they could obtain by fair means or by foul. Naples, of course, was governed by viceroys; the only object contemplated in the selection of these officers was their skill in extortion, and if they sent home money in plenty, no objection was made to any

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acts of tyranny or rapacity in which they might please to indulge on their own account. The fertility and opulence of the Neapolitan dominions would have enabled them to bear very heavy exactions, but the more the Spaniards obtained, the more they desired, and the very ease with which existing taxes were paid, became an excuse and encouragement for fresh impositions. Thus matters proceeded, until, as an Italian historian justly remarked. "The secret fires of Vesuvius were not so numerous, nor so dangerous, as the revengeful flames which burned in the bosoms of the Neapolitan populace."

During the reigns of Philip the Third and Philip the Fourth of Spain, the sufferings of the Neapolitans were aggravated by the custom which prevailed of farming the taxes. The Genoese brokers, who purchased them from the King of Spain, extorted profit in every shape and way, from the unfortunate peasant and artisan, and when profits no longer supplied their rapacity, compelled the unfortunate victims of their rapacity to yield up their little capital. Under such a system it is not wonderful that the wealth of Naples at length became exhausted; and when the Admiral of Castile, the ruling viceroy, demanded a subsidy from the assembled estates, he received a refusal which he was convinced arose from absolute poverty. He wrote to Philip the Fourth, that Naples in its present exhausted state, could not meet the new demand; he received in reply, peremptory orders to exact the subsidy, but the gallant admiral refused to become the agent of oppression, and immediately resigned the government.

This excellent nobleman was succeeded by the Duke of Arcos, a man of a very opposite character. Like most Spaniards, he was haughty, vindictive, and obstinate, but unlike his countrymen, he was crafty and treacherous. He had not been long in office, when the French, then at war with Spain, sent out a fleet which threatened to invade Naples, and consequently forced the viceroy to prepare an armament for the protection of his province. The practice of that day in such an emergency, was to borrow the amount of the parliamentary grant from some capitalist, to some capitalist, to whom a branch of the public revenue was mortgaged for the interest and repayment of the loan, and who generally derived an exorbitant profit from the transaction. Such was the general opinion of the Neapolitan resources, that a lender and money were easily found, but such, also, was the exhaustion of the country, that the viceroy's council were at their wits' end to devise an impost for its repayment. At length it was proposed by Andrea Nauclerio, the provost of the merchants, to levy a tax of one carlin per pound, on all the fruits and vegetables which were brought to market, and which then, as now, formed the principal articles of food to the lower classes at Naples. The proposition was adopted, and an edict for its enforcement issued on the 3rd of January, 1647.

This tax was by no means a new invention; several viceroys had already attempted to establish it, but had finally abandoned the scheme, from a conviction of its odious and oppressive nature. The Duke of Arcos, however, was deaf to all remonstrances, and he even accused those counsellors of treason, who ventured to remind him of the homely proverb, that "Hunger will break through stone walls." Scarcely was the edict published, when loud murmurs were heard throughout the entire city of Naples. It is a city in which a large vagrant body, called the Lazzaroni, accustomed to support life at a very trifling expense, support themselves by chance jobs, because a trifling remuneration, less than Englishmen frequently bestow in alms, enables them to live in the luxury of

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indolence. On this numerous and dangerous class the tax pressed with enormous severity; to use their own expression, recorded by a contemporary writer, "it took the food out of their very mouths." Acts of violence succeeded to their disregarded murmurs; the viceroy could not appear abroad without being subjected to seditious clamours, and even personal insults; insurrectionary placards were posted in the market-place; and the booth erected for the collection of the tax was burned to the ground. Arcos at length, greatly alarmed, summoned his council, and went through the mockery of deliberation; but every other source of revenue was pledged and mortgaged to the outside of its value, money was to be raised at all hazards, and, of course, the consultations ended in ordering the continuance of the tax. Some efforts were made to punish those who publicly testified their dissatisfaction; but this only increased the number of secret conspirators, and the viceroy soon received an alarming warning of the perils by which he was environed. A Spanish flotilla lay in the Bay of Naples, the admiral's galley was remarkable for its strength and beauty, and 300,000 ducats were placed on board her for transmission to Spain. On the night of the 12th of May, she was discovered to be on fire, and ere means could be taken to save her, she blew up with all her treasure, and a portion of her crew. There was not one who saw the spectacle that did not feel convinced that it was the work of treachery, and the viceroy felt so much alarmed, that though he was pre-eminently superstitious, he forbade the annual procession on the 24th of June, in honour of John the Baptist, lest the collection of a multitude should lead to a sudden outbreak of insurrection,

Among those who exclaimed most bitterly against the fruit tax, was Tomasso Aniello, better known by the abbreviation Mas-aniello, whose destiny it was to experience more rapid changes of condition in the ensuing troubles, than any mortal ever underwent in the same space of time. He was a handsome, lightbuilt, active, young man, not more than twenty-four years of age, but already recognised as a leader among his associates, from his readiness of wit, and great personal activity in the manly sports which delight the fishermen of Naples, His wife was detected by the tax collectors concealing a bag of flour, to evade the duty; she was grossly insulted and dragged to prison. The rest of the history must now assume the form of a journal, that our readers may the better appreciate the rapidity with which events followed each other.

July 7, 1647. This was the second Sunday before the feast of our lady of Carmel, one of the festivals celebrated by the superstitious Neapolitans with circumstances of peculiar solemnity. Among other amusements, it was customary to erect a wooden fortress, which the fishermen defended disguised as Turks, while the Lazzaroni attacked it in their ordinary habiliments. So popular was this spectacle, that it was always rehearsed on the three preceding Sundays; on the Sunday of which we speak, Masaniello, who had been chosen leader of one of the parties, assembled a crowd of boys and young persons, at a very early hour, to practise their parts in the performance. It so happened that this was also a great market-day, and crowds of peasants from the neighbouring districts had come in with fruit and vegetables for sale. Either on account of the superabundant supply, or the engagement of the multitude in their sports, the market was very heavy, and purchasers could not be found for the articles. The fiscal officers insisted that the tax should be paid on

everything, whether it was sold or not; but it still remained to be decided whether the tax should be paid by the peasants or by the hucksters. The dispute was referred to Nauclerio, the provost of the merchants, whom we have already mentioned as the proposer of the obnoxious impost, and he decided that the tax should be paid by those who brought the fruit to market. Masaniello's brother-in-law, a hard-working peasant from Pozzeroli, was one of the persons aggrieved by this decision; he exclaimed against the injustice of being compelled to pay for articles which had as yet produced him no profit, and his loud tones soon attracted the notice of Masaniello and his companions. They hurried into the market-place, and the peasant, now sure of support, ventured to give free scope to his indignation, by throwing about the figs, which had been the original cause of the dispute, crying out, "Take these who will, our tyrants shall have none of them!" In an instant, Masaniello, who stood by his side, seized a bunch of figs, and flinging it violently into Nauclerio's face, exclaimed, "Let them take this at the least!" This was the signal for a general riot, missiles of every description were flung at the taxgatherers and their attendants, one act of violence led to another, the toll-bars were torn down, the booths of the collectors burned, and in a very few minutes the market-place was at the mercy of an infuriate populace. Masaniello seized the opportunity of addressing his companions, indignation prompted his eloquence, and though he had no advantages of education, his harangue was one well calculated to ensure the support of the mob. He pointed out to his hearers the dangers they had already incurred by provoking the vengeance of the Spaniards, he declared that this was the crisis of their country's fate, he conjured them to stand by him, and promised in the strongest terms a redress of all the grievances of which they had to complain.

they knew full well that a mob, after having used the nobles, whom deluded ambition has led to participate in their efforts, must eventually yield to the natural jealousy with which the lower orders regard their superiors and fling them away as broken tools, too fine and too weak to execute the rough work required by an imperious democracy. Shocked at the excesses he was compelled to witness, the Prince took the earliest opportunity of escape, while the confused masses spread over the city, began to direct their forces on one common centre and move towards the viceroy's palace.

The viceregal guards made a faint effort to resist the popular current, but they were soon overcome, and a body of the rioters forcing their way into the viceroy's presence, imperiously demanded not only the abolition of the obnoxious impost on fruit, but of all other taxes and impositions whatever. Terrified by violence, destitute of any force on which he could rely, and perceiving that the popular excitement increased every hour, the Duke of Arcos readily assented to every demand; but his compliance did not allay the tumult, the mob began to destroy his most valuable furniture, and did not abstain from personal violence. He attempted to escape in a coach, but was detected, abused, threatened and struck; by flinging money among the mob, he diverted their attention for a moment, and while they were eagerly engaged in a scramble, he succeeded in making his escape.

After his departure, the moo proclaimed Masaniello "Captain General of the faithful people of Naples," he who had been an humble fisherman in the morning, was an absolute sovereign ere the night closed in. He nominated a council composed of the lowest and most infamous of the rioters, but, in the true spirit of a low democrat, flushed by temporary power, he did not permit his fellow rebels to deliberate on his orders; indeed he would scarcely deign to listen to their advice

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Such, indeed, are the topics always used by a demagogue to inflame a multitude; but Masaniello Even at this early stage of the revolution, symptoms was not an orator who traded on excitement, it was were perceptible of the insanity to which Masaniello a mere accident which elevated him to be the author ultimately fell a victim, and which was necessarily and leader of a movement. But his career fully ripened by the excitement of the strange circumproved the perils that arise from stimulating the pas- stances in which he found himself placed. sions of the ignorant, and added one to the many made the tower of the Carmelites his head-quarters, proofs which history affords of the impossibility of and there, while his council talked rather than delibecorrecting evils by an appeal to physical force, with-rated, he stood in moody silence, warming his hands out producing calamities infinitely greater than the oppressions which led to the insurrection. Goaded onwards by the fiery harangue of Masaniello, the mob rushed from the market-place; some armed themselves with their ordinary implements of industry, others broke open the shops of the gunsmiths and seized the weapons they contained; the houses of the farmers of taxes were broken open, shots were fired into the houses of persons supposed to be favourable to the Spaniards, and many took the opportunity of revenging private quarrels under pretence of zeal for the public cause. At first the insurgents abstained from plunder, but in this as in countless other instances, the vehemence of patriotism was soon unable to restrain the lust of pillage; the women who had joined the rioters, gave the example of pilfering, which soon extended into a regular system of robbery.

As yet the insurgents had no acknowledged leader; like all vulgar rioters they wished to have a member of the aristocracy, and accidentally meeting the Prince of Bisignano, they compelled him to act as their chief. But though the Neapolitan nobles were justly indignant at the tyranny of the Spanish viceroy, they were too wise to countenance the outbreak of the populace;

over a chafing-dish of coals. The only answer he made to repeated inquiries was, “I feel a burning and a heaviness as if my brain were overflowed by molten lead; but the Blessed Virgin and the Holy Saints appear to me every night, and promise me their assistance and protection. I have promised freedom to the people and they shall be free, yes I promise it, I swear it, they shall be free." This and similar broken speeches were uttered with maniac vehemence, which made them pass with his deluded votaries for words of inspiration. They unhesitatingly obeyed his orders to break open all the prisons, and liberate the captives; they massacred the few inhabitants who ventured to resist, and they set fire to the mansions of several obnoxious individuals. One of the houses which became the prey of the incendiaries, contained a large quantity of gun-powder, it was blown up, and eighty seven persons lost their lives. Sunday night was spent sleeplessly by the population of Naples ; the flames of burning houses lighted every quarter of the city; the shrieks of the wounded and the lamentations of the relatives of the slain were heard in every street, save where the imperious insurgents forcibly compelled silence.

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