ON WRITING MATERIALS. WHEN a material, such as paper or parchment, had time. The ink of the ancients seems to have been of a viscid, or oily, nature. Unlike the modern writing ink, it consisted of nothing more than colouring matter and gum. The chief ingredient was a species of soot, or ivory-black, mixed with one-fourth of gum. This mixture was formed into cakes or rolls, with the addition of a little water, and dried in the sun. A similar mode is practised at the present day by the Chinese, in their celebrated Indian Ink, which consists of nothing more than minutely divided carbon mixed with gum-water, and cast in a mould. This was the ink of the age of Dioscorides and Pliny, and continued in use until the seventh century. It was, probably, prepared for writing in a manner similar to the preparation of our water-colours for painting; but it was made more viscid, for the letters in ancient MSS. frequently appear in relief. Dr. Bancroft thus speaks of the writing-ink of Pliny, who lived in the first century of the Christian era. Any person who will take the trouble of mixing pure lamp-black with water, thickened a little by gum, may obtain an ink of no despicable quality in other respects, and with the advantage of being much less liable to decay by age than the ink now in common use. We must remark, however, that every black pigment mixed with gum or size, can be readily washed off the paper with water; and Pliny seems to have been aware of the fact, that unless inks sink into the surface of the papyrus, parchment, &c., they can be removed by washing. To obviate this defect, it was common in his age to use vinegar instead of water, for tempering the mixture of lamp-black and gum. An unstable sort of ink was used by Moses among the Jews, in certain ceremonials described in the law; and, in fact, eastern inks, at the present day, may be easily obliterated with a wet sponge. Mention is also made of Golden Ink in use among various nations, and among others by the Anglo-Saxons. Silver Ink was also not uncommon. Red Ink was made of vermilion or cinnabar. Purple Ink is very often found in MSS., but none are written entirely with ink of that colour. Capital letters were often written with an ink composed of vermilion and gum. Green Ink was rarely used in charters, but often in Latin MSS., especially those of the later ages. The guardians of The guardians of the Greek emperors employed Green Ink for writing the signatures of the princes until the latter came of Blue and Yellow Inks are sometimes found in Yellow Ink has probably not been in use for 600 years. In some MSS. metallic and other characters are varnished. Wax was used as a varnish by the Latins and Greeks, but more by the latter. This covering, or varnish, is common in MSS. of the age. MSS. ninth century. The word Sepia, or the cuttle-fish, is used by some Latin authors for ink, because this fish, when afraid of being caught, discharged a black matter, in order to conceal itself, which the Romans sometimes used for ink. Of the various specimens of Black Ink which we meet with in MSS., that used by the Anglo-Saxons, in the eighth and two following centuries, preserves its original blackness much better than that of succeeding ages, not even excepting the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in which it was frequently very bad. Pale and decayed ink rarely occurs at any time previous to the last four centuries. Du Cange says, that the emperors of the East wrote with Red Ink, preserved in a golden ink-horn set with gems. He also mentions a black or dark coloured ink, made of silver and lead, by which the cavities in sculpture were marked. Black Books, or Books of Necromancy, were coloured with a peculiar blackness, and the letters were believed to be the effigies of animals. We come now to speak of modern Inks, which may be considered under the following heads: 1st. Indian Ink; 2nd. Printers' Ink; 3rd. Writing Inks; 4th. Sympathetic Inks, including Marking Ink. In the first three varieties only black, red, and blue are known of in common use, but some printers employ ink of various colours. 1st. Indian Ink, or more properly China Ink, is used in China for writing with a brush, and for painting upon the soft flexible paper of Chinese manufaeture, which we have already described. The manu facture of China Ink was long kept secret, but there is now no doubt of its composition. Lamp-black and size, or animal glue, or gum, are the necessary ingredients, although perfumes and other substances, not essential to its quality as an ink, are sometimes added. The fine soot from the flame of a lamp or candle, collected upon a cold plate held over the flame, and mixed with pure size made from clean parchment, will afford an ink equal to any that is imported. 2nd. The making of Printers' Ink is a distinct branch of trade in itself. The Printers' Ink-maker is not a printer, nor does he make any one of the varieties of Writing Ink. Printers' Ink may be called a black paint. It is smooth and uniform in its composition, of a firm black colour, and is remarkable for the singular faci lity with which it adheres to paper that is thoroughly moistened. Hence it is that the printer always wets his sheets before printing; and the reader will have no difficulty in calling to mind instances of wet newspapers, damp books, pamphlets, &c., dampness being always associated with the freshest wares of the publisher. Printers' Ink consists essentially of oil and carbon, in a state of minute division. The tenacity of the oil is greatly increased, and its greasiness diminished, by means of fire. Ten or twelve gallons of oil are boiled in a twenty-four gallon iron pot and set fire to. The vessel must be of this size to prevent its contents from running over, since they swell up considerably in boiling. It is suffered to burn for half an hour or more, and the flame being then extinguished by covering the vessel closely, the boiling is continued with a gentle heat until the oil has attained the neces sary degree of consistency; in this state it is called varnish. It is found necessary to have two kinds of this varnish, a thinner and a thicker, depending upon the shorter or longer boiling, to be mixed as occasion may require, since that which answers well in hot weather becomes too thick in cold; and, besides this, large characters do not require so stiff an ink as small ones. The thickest varnish, when cold, may be drawn into threads like weak glue, and by this the workman judges of the due boiling, small quantities being from time to time taken out of the boiling pot, and dropped upon a cold tile. The oil loses from onetenth to one-eighth of its weight by being boiled into the thick varnish. Lamp-black is the common material to be added to the varnish for a black ink, in the proportion of two ounces and a half to sixteen ounces of the varnish. Vermilion is employed instead of lamp-black for Red Ink. The varnish and the colour are ground together on a stone with a muller, in the same manner as oil-paints are prepared. It is said that new oil cannot be prepared into varnish without the addition of turpentine. Some makers also add black resin and hard soap to the varnish when it has done boiling. We have also heard of treacle being employed to relax the ink a little. The ink used by copper-plate and lithographic printers differs somewhat from common printing-ink, in being less adhesive; and, in preparing it, the oil is not boiled so long. A little indigo and rose-pink are sometimes added to these inks. 3rd. As an example of the formation of common writing-ink, the reader may dissolve a crystal of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) in a little water, and bruise a nut-gall; then pour a little boiling water on it; this will give him an infusion of galls, a little of which may be added to clear water. If this be mixed with the solution of sulphate of iron, an intensely black compound will result, which is considered by some chemists to be a compound of gallic acid and oxide of iron, or gallate of iron. This substance not being very soluble in water, will subside to the bottom of the vessel containing it, but this subsidence is prevented in practice by the addition of gum-water. Many complaints of carbon contained in the latter. are brought against writing ink, which ought to be applied to the writing-paper on which it is used. Such paper made from inferior rags, bleached by an excess of chlorine, discolours the best ink. The obvious test of good ink is, therefore, to write with it on writing-paper of various kinds, and observe the permanency and blackness of the letters after a considerable lapse of time. Red Ink may be obtained by boiling a quarter of a pound of the best logwood with an ounce of alum and an ounce of cream of tartar, in about a quart or three pints of water; strain it and add immediately sugar and gum-arabic, of each one ounce. Another recipe is to steep one pound of Brazil wood, and one ounce of cochineal, in two gallons of vinegar for twelve hours, then to add four ounces of alum and one ounce of lump-sugar; let it simmer for one hour, then strain and preserve it for use. It must be remarked that in the preparation of red ink metal vessels must not be employed, as they will be corroded by the action of the acids. Blue Ink, employed for the faint lines in copybooks, ledgers, &c., is obtained from a solution of indigo in sulphuric acid; the corrosive nature of the acid is removed by the addition of alum, and the ink made fluid and permanent by gum-water. 4th. Sympathetic Inks have been employed occasionally in secret correspondence. The paper is written upon with one of these inks; and the writing remains invisible when dry, and can only be read by adopting for each ink a peculiar contrivance, which we will notice as we proceed. Many amusing experiments may be tried by the young chemist on this subject; and as the inks are easily made, and their efficacy easily tested, the following directions will suffice. 1. Write with a weak infusion of galls: the writing will be invisible; but if the paper be moistened with a weak solution of sulphate of iron, the writing will appear black. 2. If paper be soaked in an infusion of galls, and dried, a pen dipped in a solution of sulphate of iron will trace black characters on that Good Writing Ink may be formed by observing the following directions, which the writer of this article has employed for some years. Take eight ounces of Aleppo galls, in coarse powder, four ounces of logwood, in thin chips, and boil them together in twelve pounds of rain or distilled water for one hour, or one hour and a half; strain the decoction through a hair-paper, but colourless ones on any other paper. 3. A sieve; then add four ounces of sulphate of iron, three ounces of powdered gum-arabic, one ounce of sulphate of copper, and one ounce of sugar-candy; stir the mixture until the gum is dissolved, then leave it to rest for twenty-four hours; pour off the clear portion into a stoneware bottle; add about six drops of kreosote, which will effectually prevent the ink from getting mouldy, and then let the bottle be well corked. In these directions the sulphate of copper may be omitted; the only objection against using it is, that, in mending a moist pen, the ink coming in contact with the penknife coats it with copper whenever such contact is made; but the use of the sulphate of copper contributes to the durability of the ink, and tends to prevent mouldiness. Some makers recommend that the sulphate of iron should be calcined to whiteness, that acetate of copper be employed instead of the sulphate of that oxide, and that vinegar be employed instead of water; but we have found no advantage from these variations, but, on the contrary, some disadvantage; for the acid of the vinegar tends to soften the pen if a quill be used, and to corrode it if it be a steel pen; so that we cannot recommend vinegar as a menstruum for the colouring materials. The colour of Writing Ink is effectually destroyed by chlorine; but this powerful agent does not act upon Printers' Ink, on account of the large quantity dilute solution of nitrate of silver remains colourless in the dark, or by candle-light. If exposed to the sunshine for a minute or two it becomes black. 4. Write with a solution of sulphate of copper; it will become visible by dipping it in ammonia or strong hartshorn. 5. Solution of prussiate of potash affords blue letters when moistened with sulphate of iron. 6. The solution of cobalt in nitromuriatic acid, when diluted, affords an ink which becomes green when heated, and remains invisible when cold. This ink has been used in painting hand-screens, &c. The scene represents a wintry landscape, the ground and houses covered with snow, the trees destitute of foliage. On holding this to the fire, the snow appears to melt, the green grass to appear, the leaves to cover the trees, and summer to have resumed her dominion. On removing the landscape from the warmth of the fire, winter again appears to return. 7. A solution of equal parts of sulphate of copper and muriate of ammonia gives a yellow colour when heated, which disappears when cold. There are many more sympathetic inks; but these specimens will suffice to show their nature and the methods of preparing them. Marking Ink, or as it is sometimes called, Indelible Ink, for writing on linen, may be prepared by dissolving two drachms of nitrate of silver, and one drachm of gum-arabic, in seven drachms of distilled water, coloured by a little China ink. The cloth to be written on must first be moistened with a solution | together the two ends. The dexterous manner in prepared by dissolving two ounces of carbonate of which a good workman will join the links of a chain soda, and two drachms of gum-arabic, in four ounces in this manner is quite surprising to those unacof water. The cloth wetted with this solution must customed to see works of this nature performed. be dried before the letters are written. The cloth is As chains of this kind would naturally wear out at then exposed to the light, which, with the assistance those points where the links were in contact much of the carbonate of soda, decomposes the salt of silver, sooner than at the sides, the plan of making the ends and a black oxide of silver remains firmly united to of the oval thicker than the sides was resorted to; and the cloth. to save the workman's labour in reducing the iron in thickness in the necessary places, a machine was invented by which the iron was reduced in the proper manner, by passing it through steel rollers, so that the chain-maker had no more labour in making the improved link than one of the common sort. Fig. 5 is a piece of the prepared iron, and a piece cut off from A to B is sufficient to form one link. When chains Although this ink has been termed indelible, it can easily be removed by washing it in strong ammonia. When ink falls upon linen, there is, after washing, a yellow-brown spot left, which is called iron-mould. To remove this, an expensive article, called by the absurd name of Essential Salt of Lemons, is sold. This salt consists of oxalic acid and potash, or oxalate of potash. The iron of the ink forms the stain upon the linen; and with this iron the oxalic acid and the potash combine, forming an oxalate of iron and potash, which is washed out by the action of water. The box of salt of lemons, which is often sold for two or three shillings, is not really worth more than as many pence, and need never be purchased under its expensive name. CHAIN LINKS OF VARIOUS FORMS. AMONG the numerous useful applications of that valuable metal, iron, its substitution for hempen ropes, when formed into chains, is one of great import. The manufacture of iron, and other metals, into chains is of great antiquity. At first, perhaps, chains were merely an ornamental arrangement of copper, gold, or silver wire, for the decoration of persons of distinction. Iron chains were, however, used by the Romans for other purposes. They formed part of the materiel of the army, and were employed to bind or degrade captives made during their warlike enterprises. In what manner chains were formed in those early days, whether by welding, or by merely bending the wire, is uncertain. The extensive employment of iron chains in machinery, and on ship-board, at the present day, has led to great improvements in their construction. The simplest kind of chain is the following, Fig. 1. This C is frequently employed in jewellery; but unless the wire is strong, the Fig. 1. chain is extremely fragile, the links opening at the slightest pull. Figs. 2 and 3 are representations of the patterns of other chains of the same slight description. B Fig. 5. made after either of these plans are sub jected to an excessive great strain, their sides are apt to be brought together, and when that occurs, the freedom of movement of the train is impeded, and the chain becomes entangled. To prevent this occurring, several means were fancied, by placing stays of different forms across the link, so as to prevent it collapsing. Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, show several of these contrivances. Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Fig. 3. The first improvement in the formation of a chain in which strength was required, was the soldering or welding together of the links, and the usual form of these links was an oval, Fig. 4; and for all common purposes this pattern is still in use. In the case of iron chains, when the metal is united by welding, the workman having made the iron rod, of which the links are to be formed, red hot, cuts off with a chisel as much as is necessary to form one link. Having again heated this piece, he bends it into the form of a letter U over the beak of his anvil. He then heats the two ends of the link to a welding heat, and unites them by hammering; and forming the second link, he proceeds in the same manner, excepting that he introduces the new link into that last formed, before he welds He who is wise enough in youth to take the advice of his seniors, unites the vivacity and enterprise of early, with the wisdom and gravity of latter life; and what can you lose by at least asking their opinion, who can have no abstract pleayou with a chart of that ocean, to many unexplored, but over sure in misleading you; and who can, if they please, furnish which they have passed, while thousands have perished there for want of that wisdom they are willing to communicate to you. The ancients fabled part of this lesson in the history of Phaeton, who vainly attempted to guide the chariot of Apollo. The world is too much for juvenile sagacity, and he must have become grey-headed who is wise enough to walk in and out amidst the machinery of Nature, and the subtleties of human life, without being either crushed by the one, or duped by the other.-ANDREWS. THE NOVEMBER FOUNTAIN OF THE WILD BOAR, AT FLORENCE. CAMPANELLO THE MISE- and nearly finished the execution of the cupola, or dome, in 1428. THE CATHEDRAL-THE MACHIAVELLI-GALILEO. SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE, the cathedral of Florence*, was one of the first ecclesiastical edifices of Italy whose construction deviated from the pure Gothic, though it still retains more of that than of any other style. It was commenced by Arnolfo di Lapo, in the year 1289; this artist dying, was succeeded by Giotto, who, originally a shepherd boy, became a pupil of Cimabue, the founder of the Florentine school of painting. Giotto built the Campanello, or steeple, and changed the original façade of the building to make it more in unison with this tower; his successors were Donatello, Gaddi, Lorenzo di Filippo, and Brunelleschi, which last celebrated artist designed See Saturday Magazine, Vol. IV., p. 2. VOL. XIII. A higher compliment could scarcely be paid to this monument than that of Michael Angelo, who desired to be buried in a spot in the church of Santa Croce, from whence this dome could be seen; his wishes, however, on this point, were not complied with; although buried in Santa Croce, the dome is not visible from his tomb. Notwithstanding the wonder and pleasure experienced by architects on viewing this work, it disappoints the general observer: the dusky red tiles with which it is roofed form a dismal contrast to the tesselated marble of the remainder of the building; its octagonal shape and general heaviness of appearance being unrelieved by columns or galleries, leave but the impression of imposing bulk. 408 The cathedral has no façade, the space allotted to this being a plastered brick wall on which some high Corinthian columns were rudely painted in fresco, for the marriage of Ferdinand Medici; the design of this fresco can still be traced, but is nearly effaced by time, and the front now offers little more than a blank space of dead white; variety of opinion of the successive architects, is stated to be the reason of the non-completion of the façade. This imperfection exists in several of the churches of Florence: want of money and continuous change of government during the turbulent period of the republic, are probably the causes; it is, however, extraordinary that it should happen so repeatedly, and that three or four churches should be commenced before one he well finished; still more extraordinary that the later archdukes of Tuscany have suffered this eye-sore to exist unaltered, and to detract so much from the beauty of their metropolis. The Campanello, which stands at a few feet distance from the south-west corner of the church, is a production of surpassing elegance; the black and white tesselated marble with which it is encased is much better adapted to this light gracefully-proportioned structure than to the mountain mass of the church itself; at the same time it does not deteriorate, but rather improves the appearance of the latter, by its juxta-position; it was erected, as before stated, by Giotto, in 1334, about thirty years after the death of Lapo. "Beautiful as the Campanello," is stated to have been a favourite expression of the Florentines, whose pride in national monuments is evinced by the characteristic resolution of their municipality for the building of this church, in which document, it being "considered meet that the magnificence of a people should shine forth in the monuments it caused to be erected," Arnolf was enjoined to form the model of a work "than which man could imagine nothing grander or more beautiful." Resounding from the Campanello is occasionally heard the booming of a deep-toned bell; this is to summon the Confratelli della Misericordia, or Brothers of Charity. This institution, the most Christian in its nature and effects of any we meet with in Catholic countries, is reported to have been founded after the memorable plague of the fourteenth century, by the survivors of those humane spirits who devoted themselves to attendance on the sick, the dying, and the dead; and to the sick, the dying, and the dead, have its good offices ever since been devoted. It is purely voluntary, the brother taking the vows for any period of time he thinks fit; it has the peculiarity, unknown to other monastic institutions, of not excluding from worldly affairs, though these are never permitted to interfere with its duties. The members belong to all ranks, and the prince and the peasant, the master and his servant, the rich man and the pauper, walk side by side clothed in the same dress, and equally assiduous in ministering to the sufferings of their fellow creatures. On the sound of the bell above mentioned, all those who are on duty for the time leave their present occupation, be it what it may; the nobleman leaves his partner at the ball, the tradesman his business, and meet at the small chapel near the dome, where, having put on a dress which entirely conceals the person, they are directed to the object which requires their aid; they remove on a bier the sufferer, and convey him to the hospital. Should he be poor, they supply him with food and medicine until he recovers, or in case of death, bury him decently; but the better circumstanced person can always command their services, in which case they are generally reimbursed their expenses, in order not to encroach on the funds. It is also incumbent on them to attend the prisoner condemned to death, and administer the last office of consolation. The late archduke of Tuscany, Leopold, is reported frequently to have officiated; the present duke is also a member of the brotherhood. It is said that the bell has never tolled without assembling double the number required. There is one beautiful rule of this society, which requires, if a Catholic and heretic be found injured in the street at the same time, that the heretic be taken up first; the founders made attention to the heretic imperative, considering it certain to the Catholic patient. A sermon is annually preached, and contributions made by the English Protestant congregation, in aid of this charity; and we need hardly add, that in no part of the world is British liberality ever appealed to in vain for benevolent purposes. The appearance of the Confratelli, as they march with solemn step, bearing a litter or bier, clothed in a black domino and cap with eyelet-holes (see Engraving in page 184), is strange, and impresses the beholder with awe; they look more like the hooded ministers of inquisitorial vengeance, than the humane votaries of the chiefest Christian virtue. Opposite the gates of the cathedral is the small octagonal church of St. John, now used as a general baptistry for the city, the three bronze gates of which are celebrated as the most beautiful castings extant; the southern one was made by Andrea Pisano, and was honoured by a visit of the seignory of Florence, who conferred upon the artist the freedom of the city, a distinction at that time envied by princes. The construction of the other two was, at a subsequent time, thrown open for competition to the Florentine artists, among whom were Brunelleschi and Ghiberti: the specimen of the latter (the subject being the sacrifice of Abraham, and now preserved in the Royal Gallery) was decided to excel, and he produced two gates, one of which was so exquisite as to be called by Michael Angelo, the Gate of Paradise; it faces the cathedral, and exhibits, in twelve compartments, events from the Old Testament; over each gate are three statues representing passages in the life of St. John. Mixed with these beautiful specimens of art is a relic of barbarism, exhibited in the frustra of two porphyry columns, from which are suspended iron chains. It is a curious circumstance that these trophies record, at the same time, the friendship and enmity of the Florentines and Pisans; the former, namely, the columns, having been taken by the Pisans from the Saracens, and presented to the Florentines for guarding their city; the latter having been torn from the gates of Pisa by the Florentines, when conquerors. This custom of hanging trophies of conquest on temples of worship has existed in all ages; we ourselves are not entirely exempt from it, but it would seem that more acceptable offerings might ornament the temple of a Divinity than those which commemorate the slaughter of His creatures; that more acceptable thanksgivings for victory or deliverance may be rendered than those which tend to perpetuate unchristian arrogance in the victors, and to renew hostility by wounding the feelings of the vanquished. The church of Santa Croce, surnamed the Mecca of Italy, from the pilgrimages of visitors to the tombs of its illustrious dead, is, in the purpose to which it has been applied, analogous to our Westminster Abbey, having been appropriated to the burial of the most eminent Tuscans. Within its walls are the tombs of Galileo, Michael Angelo, Machiavel, Alfieri, and a cenotaph lately erected to Dante, who was buried at Ravenna. The Florentines, who banished him their |