restlessness, it being impossible to procure sleep

ABSTRACTION is an act of the mind, by er quiet; and, finally, the skin becomes intensely which it considers a certain attribute of an object, hot, the pulse extremely rapid, the emaciation or several objects, by itself, and without regardfrightful, the debility so great that scarcely the ing any other attributes which the object or obslightest movement can be performed, and at jects may happen to possess. Thus, if we see length the individual sinks exhausted, commonly ink, pitch, ebony, and a negro, we see that these into a state of stupor amounting to that complete objects have in common the attribute of blackand profound insensibility which is technically called Coma.

ness; and this quality we can in thought draw off or abstract from the various other attributes which From the powerful influence of abstinence on the they respectively possess; and consider it sepasystem, it is capable of becoming a most energetic rately and independently of anything else. In remedy in various diseases. When the mass of like manner we can consider any attribute of a the fluids and solids of the body is too abundant, single object, such as of the sun or moon, without abstinence is capable of reducing them to almost attending to its other attributes; thus we may any extent that can be required; and if the ab- contemplate the magnitude of the sun without atstinence be judiciously commenced and conducted, tending to its heat, light, &c. so we may connot only is it unattended with any diminution of template the light of the moon, without attendthe strength or injury to the health, but it con- ing to its magnitude, the inequalities of its surtributes to the improvement of both. Numerous instances are on record which place this fact be yond question.

face, &c. All names of classes, inasmuch as the individual members can never be identical, are formed by a process of abstraction. Thus, when In all acute diseases, such as the various forms we think of a ship or a house, we pay no attention of fever and inflammation, abstinence is a most to the materials, colour, shape, size, construction, powerful remedy, not only because the abstraction convenience, or beauty of the ship or house, but of nutriment diminishes the mass of the fluids we give the one name to any dwelling of man and solids (since the process of absorption goes built by regular artificers, and the other to any en though the supply of new matter is stopped), but also because it withdraws one of the main stimulants of the system, and consequently subdues the increased actions which accompany and for the most part constitute acute diseases.

vessel with a deck and masts made to sail on the sea. Any object which possesses these attributes we call a ship or a house; though there cannot be any ship or house which possesses only those attributes, and is not also of a certain colour, size, shape, &c.; but these incidental qualities we leave out of our consideration in referring any object to the class of houses or ships.

In some chronic maladies, especially in that large class which depend on what is termed plethora, that is, too great a quantity of solids and fluids, particularly in the plethoric state of the From these remarks it is evident that abstracblood-vessels of the brain predisposing to and tion, being a merely arbitrary act of the mind, by producing apoplexy, in some morbid affections of which a certain attribute is considered apart from the stomach itself, in some derangements of the any other attributes with which it may happen to liver, and in several diseases of the heart, absti- be associated, does not represent to us images or nence is an invaluable remedy. In other chronic notions to which there is anything corresponding diseases it is injurious, as in diseases of debility, in the nature of things: there is nowhere an abin diseases which depend on irritation in contra-stract man or tree, which has no colour, dimendistinction to those which depend on inflammation, and in various nervous maladies.

It is curious, and it is highly important to bear in mind, that abstinence and excess produce symptoms so nearly alike, that it often requires the utmost care and sagacity on the part of the physician to distinguish the one case from the other; and as the one requires opposite remedies from the other, a mistake may be fatal, and must be injurious.

sions, or other incidents not entering into the abstract notion signified by those general terms. Whenever we recognize in any object those peculiarities which we consider as characteristic of a certain class, we refer it to that class, without taking any heed of the other attributes with which they may happen to be combined.

The circumstance of there not being any sensible object, or any conception of our mind, which we can image to ourselves without its attributes, It is the common belief that abstinence is con- has given rise to considerable perplexity on the ducive to longevity, and many stories are on re- subject of abstraction. For instance, when we cord which are conceived to establish the truth of think of a horse, we represent to ourselves an this opinion. It is stated, for example, that the animal of a certain colour, shape, and size; though primitive Christians of the east, who retired from we should equally give the name of horse to an persecution into the deserts of Arabia and Egypt, animal of different colour, shape, and size. So, lived healthfully and cheerfully on twelve ounces when we think of a plane triangle, although a of bread per day, with mere water; that, with triangle is any plane figure bounded by three this diet St. Anthony lived 105 years; James the straight lines, yet we cannot help representing to Hermit, 104; Arsenius, tutor of the Emperor ourselves a triangle which is either right-angled, Arcadius, 120; St. Epiphanius, 115; Simeon the or acute angled, or obtuse-angled, or equilateral, or Stylite, 112; and Romauld, 120: to which are added many others. But we should remark that the evidence for these instances of longevity may not be quite satisfactory.

scalene. The truth is, that the process by which the mind abstracts is, that it conceives or represents to itself the object of thought as an individual of its class, together with certain particular

ABSURDUM,

attributes which must belong to all individuals;! REDUCTIO AD, is that and it considers apart from the rest only that at- species of argument which proves not the thing tribute which is required for the matter in hand. asserted, but the absurdity of everything which Thus, if it is a question whether a newly disco- contradicts it. It is much used in Geometry, in vered skeleton is that of an animal belonging to order to demonstrate the converse [CONVERSE] the class of elephants or of deer, the comparative of a proposition already proved. One of two anatomist calls to his mind an elephant or deer, things must be true; either the proposition such as actually exists, but considers only the asserted, or something which contradicts it. If structure of his bones; and, if there is a close the opposing party denies the proposition, he must agreement in this respect, he pronounces the ske- affirm that which is contradictory. Let his leton to have belonged to one of those classes. counter-proposition be taken for granted: then, o, likewise, when a mathematician, by means of if, by the legitimate use of it, some absurdity can a figure described on paper, proves that the square be deduced, it is evident that his contradiction is on the hypothenuse equals the sum of the squares wrong, and the original proposition right. on the other sides of a right-angled triangle, although the image in his mind is that of a triangle of a definite size, yet he considers only the relation of the sides and angles, without paying any attention to the length of the sides.

The reductio ad absurdum has been objected to as not equally conclusive with direct demonstration. For this there is no foundation; though it must be admitted that direct demonstrations, are more pleasing and more elegant. But it is obvious that, if everything which contradicts a proposition be false, the proposition itself must be true.

ABSTRACTION AND ABSORPTION OF HEAT is that power by which caloric, or heat, proceeding from any body is received in the me- ABU BEKK, son of Abú-l-Kaháfah, of the dium which surrounds the body, or in any con- illustrious tribe of Koraysh, was born A. D. 571. ducting substance with which it is in contact, the His original name was Abdu-l-Ka'bah, but he temperature of the medium or of the substance assumed the name of Abu Bekr (father of the in contact being lower than that of the body virgin,') on the marriage of his daughter Ayesha from which either of them receives the heat. The to the prophet Mohammed. On the death of freedom with which the heat is propagated in the Mohammed, in 632, two powerful parties claimed body receiving it is designated the conducting power of that body.

the right of appointing his successor, one espousing the cause of Abu Bekr, the father-in-law, The heat emitted by bodies depends in part on the other that of Ali, the son-in-law of the the nature of their surfaces; such as have a cer- prophet. Through the interposition of Omar, tain degree of roughness allow it to pass off more Abu Bekr was elected Khalif on the 9th of June, abundantly than those which are smooth, and 632, though not without great opposition on the thus boiling water soon becomes cool if poured in part of Ali. This contest divided the Mohammea vessel whose exterior is painted or blackened, dan community into two sects, Sunnites and while it long retains its heat when it is contained Shiites, which still subsist: the former assert the in one whose exterior is polished. The conduct-, right of Abu Bekr and his two successors, Omar ing power differs, however, in different substances and Othman, to the command of the Faithful ; independently of the nature of the surface; among while the latter condemn these three as usurpers, metals, that which possesses it in the highest de- and maintain the exclusive right of Ali and his gree, according to the experiments of Despretz, is lineal descendants. [ALI IBN ABI TALIB. For gold; and below this, in order, are silver, copper, the newly elected Khalif only the towns Mecca, brass, platinum, iron, tin, zinc, and lead. Of Medina, and Tayef declared themselves; the solid bodies, the worst conductors are stones, other Arabian provinces had renounced the reliearthenware, and glass; and Count Rumford has gion of Mohammed, and now refused allegiance found by experiment that lint, sheeps' wool, raw to his successor. The first care of Abu Bekr, silk, beavers' fur, and hares' fur, are successively accordingly, was directed to reduce the rebellious lower than each other in conducting power.

provinces to obedience, in effecting which he was Liquids are very imperfect conductors, yet, in powerfully assisted by Omar, who afterwards consequence of the readiness with which their succeeded him, and by Khaled Ibn Waeld, a particles are displaced, heat rapidly passes through general of extraordinary ability. Having supthem on mixing with water any substance, such pressed this rebellion, Abu Bekr was assailed by as milk, which is capable of diminishing its other difficulties from several new pretended profluidity, the velocity with which heat is propa phets, who started up in different parts of Arabia, gated through it becomes less. Acriform fluids and gathered numerous adherents around them. are more imperfect conductors of heat than li- The most formidable of these was Moseylemah, quids, and still more so than solids, though heat who had risen in the province of Yemamah. He is readily transmitted through them. Sir John was defeated by Khaled, and slain in a battle near Leslie proved by experiments that the surfaces Akrabah, in which also many of the personal from which heat radiates with the greatest free-associates of Mohammed fell. After this battle dom absorb it most readily; and Dr. Ritchie Abu Bekr caused the precepts and ordinances of contrived a species of thermometer, by which he Mohammed, which had hitherto been partly oral determined that the power of radiation from any and partly written on palm-leaves, to be collected, surface is exactly equal to that of absorption from and the whole to be embodied in the volume the same surface. known under the name of the Koran.

(Journal of the Royal Institution, Dec. 1831.)

Having fully established his authority over

Arabia, Abu Bekr's next aim was to extend the the most enlightened statesmen of the East. His limits of the empire. For this purpose he de- principal works are the Akbar-Náma,' which spatched Khaled into Irak, who subdued several exists as yet only in MS., and contains a history of the frontier provinces of Persia. He was soon of the reign of Akbar, down to the time of the recalled, however, to join Abu Obeiah, who had author's death; the Ayin-i-Akbari,' or Instibeen sent against Syria, had defeated the army of tutes of Akbar,' which gives a statistical and pothe emperor Heraclius, and taken Bostra. With litical description of the Mogul empire; the united forces the two generals defeated a Greek Ayári Dánish,' or 'Touchstone of Knowledge,' army of 70,000 men, and completed the conquest a translation into Persian of the Fables of Pilpay; of Syria by the capture of Damascus, Aug. 23,

634.

and Maktúbat,' or Insháe Abu-l-Fazl,' which contains his correspondence. Persian Translations of the great Sanscrit epic ‹ Mahábháratá,' and other Sanscrit works, were made under his learned patronage.

On this same day Abu Bekr died at Medina, in the 63rd year of his age, having appointed Omar as his successor in his will. He is greatly extolled by Eastern writers for the simplicity of his habits, ABU'LFEDA, or, with his full name, Emadand the picty of his life; so great was his liber-eddin Abulfeda Ismail ben Ali, was the descendality, that on Friday in each week he distributed ant of a branch of the Ayubite dynasty, which what remained of his own and the public money Saladin, in A.D. 1182, appointed to the sovereignty among the poor. Even the partisans of Ali, who consider him a usurper, acknowledge him to have been the mildest monarch who ever wielded a sceptre.

of the three towns, Hamah, Maarrah, and Barin, in Syria, and which continued to hold that dignity even after the Bahrite Mamluks, under Azz-eddin Ibek, had, in A.D. 1254, put an end to the Ayu(Abú-l-fedá, De Vita et Reb. Gest. Moham- bite dominion over Syria and Egypt. Abulfeda media, Oxon. 1723; Gibbon, Decline and Fall.) was born in A.D. 1273, at Damascus, whither his ABULFARA GIUS, properly Mar Gregorius parents had fled at the approach of the Tartars. Abuljuraj, an Oriental writer of much celebrity, While a youth, he distinguished himself in was born in A. D. 1226, at Malatia, a town near various campaigns. In 1285 he was present at the sources of the Euphrates, in Armenia, where the siege of Markab, in 1289 at that of Tripoli, his father. Aaron, followed the profession of a phy- in 1291 at the taking of Akka (St. Jean d'Acre), sician. Though the offspring of a Jewish family, and in 1292 he was present under his father he embraced the Christian belief, to which he Ali at the storming of Kalát Ar-rúm, a fortress continued faithful till his death. Abulfaraj stu-, on the Euphrates. After the death of his fadied theology, philosophy, and medicine. He ther, in 1295, he was treated with parental care by speat the greater part of his life in Syria. He was his cousin Modhaffar, then king of Hamah. On made a bishop at the age of twenty, and for some the death of Modhaflar, in 1299, the Bahrite time held the see of Aleppo. In 1266 he was elected primate of all the Jacobite Christians in the East. He died at Maragha in Azerbijan, A.D. 1286.

Sultan Nasir declared the fief which the Ayubites held under him to have become extinct, and assigned a small pension for their maintenance. When, however, ten years afterwards, Sultan Abulfuraj was the author of a great number of Nasir became personally acquainted with Abulfeda, Arabic and Syriac works; but the composition he not only restored to him (1310) the former through which his name has become best known dignity of his family, but soon after, as an acis an abridgment of general history, entitled 'The knowledgment for his services, raised him to the History of the Dynasties. The work, which was rank of malik, or king. He continued on the written by the author both in Arabic and Syriac, is most friendly terms with Nasir, till his death, divided into ten parts or dynasties, and contains a October 26, 1331. The numerous works which history of the world from the creation to his own he has left behind attest the extent and variety of time. The parts relating to the Mogul Tartars, his information. Among them we find mentioned the conquests of Genghiz Khan in Syria and works on medicine, Mohammedan jurisprudence, Mesopotamia, and the Mohammedan history, are of mathematics, and philosophy; those most comvery great value. The Arabic text of The Dynas-monly known are a treatise on geography, enties, with a Latin translation, was published by titled 'Takwim al Boldan,' or Disposition of the Pococke, at Oxford, in 1663, 4to.; the Syriac Countries,' and an historical work called Mokhtext, likewise with a Latin version, by Bruns and tasar fi akhbari-l-bashar,' i.e. A Compendium Kirsch, at Leipzig, in 1789, 4to. of the History of Mankind,' which is very ABC-L-FAZL, vizier of the Mogul emperor valuable, as being the most important oriental Akbar, who reigned from 1555 to 1605, was source for the history of the Crusades, which we born at Agra, in what year is uncertain. Of the possess. The part of the work which treats of the lite of Abu-l-Fazl few details are known to us. He history of Mohammedanism, was translated by was called to the council by Akbar in 1572. In Reiske, and edited with the Arabic text by 1602, when returning from the Deccan, he was murdered in the district of Nurwar, by the contrivance of Akbar's son Selim, who afterwards succeeded his father on the throne, under the name of Jehangir. Abu-l-Fazl wrote several works, which have ensured him a conspicuous ABUSHIRE, or BUSHIRE, a sea-port town place among the best authors, as well as among in the province of Farsistan, Persia, is situated on

Adler, at Copenhagen, in 5 vols. 4to, 1789-94; an edition and translation of the ante-Islamitic part has been published by Fleischer, Leipzig, 1831, 4to.

ABURY. [AVEBURY.]

show by what other lands, highways, hedges, rivers, &c., such lands are in those several directions bounded.

The boundaries and abuttals of corporation and church lands, and of parishes, are usually preserved by an annual procession, or perambulation, as it is called.

the north-east coast of the Persian Gulf, in 29° N. lat., 50° 52′ E. long. The population is estimated at from 15,000 to 20,000. Abushire stands at the northern extremity of a sandy peninsula, which forms on the east and north-east a deep bay. Ships of about 300 tons burthen can lie in the inner roads about six miles north from the town, and ships of larger burthen in 25 feet ABYDE'NUS, also called Abidenus by Euof water, three or four miles west from the town. sebius, a Greek historian, who is known to us The anchorage is tolerably good, but during violent only as the author of a history of Chaldæa, or, gales from the north-west, ships are obliged to as it is commonly called, of Assyria (Acougiaxú), bear up for the small island of Karak to the which is lost, with the exception of some fragW.N.W. There is deep water directly east from ments preserved in Eusebius, Cyrillus, Syncellus, the town, but a bar prevents vessels drawing more and Moses of Chorene. The time at which Abythan from 8 to 10 feet water from reaching it. denus lived is not certain he must however beThe anchorage at Karak is safe at all times, and long to a later period than Berosus, who lived ships can lie close to the shore. Water, which is about B.c. 250; for in one of the fragments still excessively bad and dear at Abushire, can be had extant, Abydenus mentions Berosus among his in abundance at Karak. The climate is extremely authorities. The fragments of the history of hot, especially in June, July, and August. Abydenus are collected in Scaliger's work, 'De Abushire is the emporium of a large commerce Emendatione Temporum,' and more completely between the East Indies and Persia, its merchants in J. D. G. Richter, Berosi Chaldæi Historiæ supplying almost all Persia with Indian com- quæ supersunt,' &c., Leipzig, 1825, 8vo, p. 38, modities as well as with many of those of Europe, &c., and p. 85, &c. and exporting in return the productions of Persia and Turkey to the East Indies and to Europe. Of the imports from India the most important are indigo, sugar, and spices; of the Persian exports, raw silk is the most important.

ABY DOS was an ancient Greek town on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont, or Dardanelles. Sestos is on the opposite European shore. It is said by Strabo to have been founded by the Milesians. Abydos was burnt by Darius the ABUTMENT, in building, that which receives Persian, after his Scythian expedition; and somethe end of and gives support to anything having what later (B.c. 480) the people of Abydos wita tendency to spread. The piers or mounds on nessed the crossing of the immense army of Xerxes or against which an arch that is less than a semi- over the Hellespont by a bridge of boats. circle, or a series of such arches, rests, are abut- bridge did not extend obliquely from Abydos to ments; while the supports of a semi-circular or Sestos, which was a distance of more than three semi-elliptical arch, or of an arch of any other English miles, but directly across at a narrower part, figure, which springs at right angles to the hori- where the distance is somewhat less than one mile. zon, are imposts. Nevertheless, the piers at the It commenced on the Asiatic side, a little higher extremities of a bridge, of whatever form its arch up the stream than Abydos, and terminated on the or arches may be, are always termed its abut-opposite coast at the projecting point opposite to

ments.

This

A

Abydos, and between Madytus and Sestos. description of the bridge of Xerxes is given by Herodotus (vii. 36), who was on the spot probably much less than half a century after the event. No traces of the ancient town remain, except the foundation walls of a building of considerable size.

ABUTMENT, in machinery, is a fixed point from which resistance or reaction is obtained. Thus the breech of a gun forms an abutment for the expansive force of the powder; and in an ordinary steam-engine, each end of the cylinder acts alternately as an abutment for the steam, which, being unable to expand itself in the direction of the fixed obstacle, expends its whole force against the piston or moveable obstacle. Even a rotatory steam-engine, with a continuous circular action, must have an abutment, although in the primitive rotatory engine of Hero of Alexandria, ABY DOS, an ancient city of Upper Egypt, and in some modern machines on the same prin- the remains of which are found near two vilciple, the abutment is found in the resistance of lages, El Kherbeh and Harabat, about 6 miles the air. Springs, whether used, as in a watch, from the west bank of the Nile, 26° 12′ N. lat. to impel machinery, or, as in the various kinds of The chief building, which still remains, is nearly spring-balance, to measure or control force, must covered with sand, but the interior is in good prein like way have their abutments, as also must servation. This edifice is constructed of both all machines in which power is transmitted by limestone and sandstone. The numerous apartmeans of screws. The name is applied in car-ments it contains, and the style of decoration, pentry to a joint in which the end of one piece show that Abydos was once a place of importance, of timber is joined to the side of another, so that and possibly a royal residence. their fibres form an angle with each other.

Abydos has obtained a poetical celebrity from the story of Leander, who used to swim across the Hellespont to visit his mistress, Hero. Lord Byron's poem of the Bride of Abydos' contains a passage relating to this story.

In the year 1818, Mr. W. Bankes discovered ABUTTALS (from the French abutter, to on an interior wall of a building at Abydos, not limit or bound) are the buttings and boundings of belonging to the great edifice, a kind of tablet or lands to the east, west, north, and south, which genealogy of the early kings of Egypt, which is

now generally called the Table of Abydos.' This and grass; some of them afford good pasture, tablet consists of three compartments lying hori- and in some places cultivation is carried on zontally one above another, and each compartment to a considerable extent, but in general it is has been divided into twenty-six rectangles, so limited to a few spots. A mountain-tract trathat the whole has once contained seventy-eight verses the country from east to west: it is severectangles. Each of these rectangles contains an ral miles in width, and consists of steep hills with elliptical ring, or cartouche as it is sometimes deep depressions between them. Only a small called, such as may be seen on the Egyptian portion of this tract is available for pasture, as monuments in the British Museum; and each the hills are generally rocky and bare, and there cartouche contains those various figures which is little cultivation. South of this tract lies the are now admitted to indicate the names or titles Plain of Antálo, in which the capital of Tigré is of sovereigns. The lowest of the three compart- built on the declivity of a range of hills. The ments contains in the nineteen rectangles which portion of this plain which surrounds the town are complete the title and name of Ramses the of Antálo is considered the best part of Tigré: Great, perhaps the Greek Sesostris. The fifty- it is for the most part rather hilly, and the first and fifty-second cartouches are said to contain channels of the rivers are bounded on each side the name and title of another Ramses, while the by steep slopes. Agriculture extends over the forty-seventh is said to contain those of Ameno- acclivities of the hills, and even their flat tops phis II., the Memnon of the Greeks. Of the are sometimes cultivated. The plain descends other cartouches nothing certain is affirmed. (Westminster Review, No. xxviii. p. 405.) ABYSSINIA. This African country is an elevated table-land, lying between 8° 30′ and 15° 40′ N. lat. and between 35 and 42° E. long. The north-eastern edge of the table-land is directed towards the Red Sea, and is from 30 to 60 miles from its shores; the other or inland edges slope away to a lower level on every side: so that if the surrounding part of Africa were covered with water to the depth of a few hundred feet, the whole of Abyssinia would form an island. The river Hawash forms the southern boundary of the table-land; and from the valley of this river the country rises gradually to a ridge which may be between 7000 and 8000 feet above the sea, and constitutes in these parts the edge of the table-land. Towards the north-west the tableland falls off in inclined plains of immense extent, until it terminates on the banks of the Nile in Shendy (between 16° and 18o N. lat.). There is a mountainous region in the middle of Abyssinia, which separates the table-land into two portions, the north-eastern and the south-western.

Physical Geography.-The North-eastern TableLand, or Table-Land of Tigré, extends from 11° 30 to 15° 40′ N. lat., and between 42° and 39° E. long. The edge of the table-land towards the Red Sea is crowned with a ridge of hills, which rise from 500 to 1000 feet higher than the tableland itself; and from the base of these hills the country descends gradually to the west. This tract suffers from want of water, and is therefore sparingly inhabited. It supplies pasture for a great number of cattle, black sheep, and fine goats; asses and mules are also kept, and these animals constitute the wealth of the inhabitants, as cultivation is limited to the base of the hills, on which the villages are generally built.

towards the river Takkazie very rapidly; and at the same time cultivation ceases almost entirely, and the country is covered with dark brushwood full of game. From thence to the Red Sea the cultivation is very limited.

North of the Plain of Antálo, and west of the Haramat Mountains, is the Plain of Tembien, much less elevated than the other. The entrance from the one plain to the other is by the Pass of Atbara. The Plain of Tembien, about 100 miles long by 30 wide, has a few cultivated spots, but the greater part of the plain consists of low sandstone hills, and the soil is sandy and unfit for cultivation: in the middle of the plain there is an extensive tract which constitutes a fine pastoral country, and is interspersed with trees. North of the Plain of Tembien are those of Shiré and Serawé: they are more elevated than the firstmentioned plain, being at least 7000 feet above the level of the sea. The Plain of Serawé is celebrated in Tigré for its flowery meadows, shady groves, and rich valleys. From the banks of the river, one long and steep ascent brings the traveller to the plain, whose surface is composed of sandstone, and on which a great number of volcanic cones rise to some height. On the plain are several hilly ridges, but the greater part is covered with bushes, between which there are excellent pasture-grounds. The herds of cattle on this plain are large and numerous; but agriculture is limited to a few places. A hilly region separates the plain from the Hamarat mountains: the rivers which originate in it run westward, and form by their union the Mareb.

The southern part of Tigré, or that which is south of the Plain of Antálo, is mountainous. It comprehends the upper basin of the Takkazie and the whole basin of its affluent the Tzelari. Near the source of the Tzelari is the ridge between the South of 15 N. lat. the hills on the edge of rivers which flow north and south; and at some the table-land form two ranges, which inclose distance from it are two large lakes, the Tzado a longitudinal valley. The declivities of these Bahari, or the great lake of Ashangi, and the ridges are partly covered with low bushes and Guala Ashangi, or Machakh. The country surpartly with grass; and the included space con- rounding these lakes and the source of the Tzelari sists of a succession of table-lands several miles has a great elevation above the sea-level, and the in extent, and of small valleys, the sloping sides climate is excessively cold. The district is a comof which are very steep. The table-lands are plete wilderness; there is neither village, nor culpartly bare and partly overgrown with bushes tivation, nor cattle, nor wild beast except the fox: