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CHAPTER XI.

OF TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD.

1. THOSE propositions are true, which represent things as they are: or, truth is the conformity of those words, or signs by which things are expressed, to the things themselves.

2. Those propositions are false, which represent things as they are not or, falsehood is the nonconformity of those words or signs by which things are expressed, to the things themselves.

CHAPTER XII.

OF RELATION.

THERE is a set of ideas, which the mind gets from the comparing of one thing with another.

When the mind so considers one thing, that it does as it were bring it to and set it by another, and carry its view from one to the other, this is relation or respect: and the denominations given to things intimating that respect, we call relatives, and the things so brought together, related. Thus when we call James husband, or whiter, we intimate some other person, or thing, in both cases with which we compare him. Any of our ideas may be the foundation of relation. The ideas of relation may be the same in those men who have far different ideas of the things that are related. Thus those who have different ideas of man, may agree in that of father. There is no

idea of any kind which is not capable of an almost infinite number of considerations, in reference to other things; and therefore this makes no small part of men's words and thoughts. Thus one single man may at once sustain the relations of father, brother, son, husband, friend, subject, general, European, Englishman, islander, master, servant, bigger, less, &c. to an almost infinite number : he being capable of as many relations as there may be occasions of comparing him to other persons or things in any manner of agreement, disagreement, or respect what

soever.

II. Of Cause and Effect, and other relations.

The ideas of cause and effect, we get from our observation of the vicissitude of things, while we perceive some qualities or substances begin to exist, and that they receive their existence from the due application and operation of other things that which produces is the cause; that which is produced, the effect. Thus fluidity in wax is the effect of a certain degree of heat, which we observe to be constantly produced by the application of such heat. Or as Professor Brown defines :

Immediate invariable antecedence is power,-the immediate invariable antecedent, in any sequence, is a cause, —the immediate invariable consequent is the correlative effect.

The denominations of things taken from time, are for the most part only relations. Thus when it is said that Queen Elizabeth lived 69, and reigned 45 years, no more is meant than that the duration of her existence was equal to 69, and of her government 45 annual revolutions of the sun. Young and old, and other words of time, that are thought to stand for positive ideas, are indeed relative; and intimate a relation to a certain length of duration,

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whereof we have the idea in our minds. Thus we call a man young or old, who has lived little or much of that time that men usually attain to. This is evident from our application of these names to other things for a man is called young at 20, but a horse old, &c. The sun and stars we call not old at all, because we know not what period God has set to that sort of beings.

There are other ideas that are truly relative, which we signify by names that are thought positive and absolute; such as great and little, strong and weak. The things thus denominated, are referred to some standards, with which we compare them. Thus we call an apple great, that is bigger than the ordinary sort of those we have been used to; and a man weak, who has not so much strength or power to move as men usually have.

CHAPTER XIII.

OF THE MODES OF THINKING.

WHEN the mind turns its view inwards upon itself, thinking, is the first idea that occurs; wherein it observes a great variety of modifications; and thereof frames to itself distinct ideas. Thus, the perception annexed to any impression on the body made by an external object, is called sensation. When an idea recurs without the presence of the object, it is called remembrance: when sought after by the mind, and brought again in view, it is Recollection; when held there long under attentive consideration, it is contemplation. When ideas float in the mind without regard or reflection, it is called in French reverie; our language has no other name for it when the ideas are taken notice of, and as it were registered in

the memory, it is attention: when the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and considers it on all sides, it is intention and study. Sleep, without dreaming, is rest from all these and Dreaming is the perception of ideas in the mind, not suggested by any external objects, or known occasions; nor under choice or conduct of the understanding.

CHAPTER XIV.

OF THE MODES OF PLEASURE AND PAIN.

PLEASURE and pain, are simple ideas, which we receive both from sensation and reflection. There are thoughts of the mind, as well as sensations, accompanied with pleasure or pain. Their causes are termed good or evil. Pleasure and pain, and their causes, good and evil, are the hinges upon which our passions turn; by reflecting on the various modifications or tempers of mind, and the internal sensations which pleasure and pain, good and evil, produce in us, we may thence form to ourselves the idea of our passions. Thus, by reflecting upon the thought we have of the delight which any thing is apt to produce in us, we have an idea we call love: and, on the contrary, the thought of the pain which any thing present or absent produces in us, is what we call hatred. Desire is that uneasiness which man finds in himself upon the absence of any thing, the present enjoyment of which carries the idea of delight with it. Joy is a delight of the mind arising from the present or assured approaching possession of a good. Sorrow is an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of a good lost, or the sense of a present evil. Hope is a pleasure of the mind, upon the thought

of a probable future enjoyment of a thing which is apt to delight. Fear is an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of a future evil likely to befall us. Anger is a discomposure of the mind, upon the receipt of injury, with a present purpose of revenge. Despair is the thought of unattainableness of any good. Envy is an uneasiness of the mind, caused by the consideration of a good we desire, obtained by one who we think should not have had it before us.

In reference to the passions, the removal or lessening of a pain is considered and operates as a pleasure; and the loss or diminishing of a pleasure, as a pain and farther, the passions in most persons operate on the body, and cause various changes in it; but these being not always sensible, do not make a necessary part of the idea of each passion.

CHAPTER XV.

OF WORDS, OR LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.

I. Man fitted to form articulate sounds.

GOD having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society. Man, therefore, had by nature his organs so fashioned, as to be fit to frame articulate sounds, which we call words.

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