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liquors within their borders-Maine, Kansas, North Dakota, and Oklahoma by constitutional provision, and Mississippi, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Tennessee by statute. Over half of the states leave the question to the decision of the localities themselves. Under provisions of local option, the counties, cities, villages, and other divisions may vote upon the prohibition of the traffic, and the same is decided by the majority vote. With the coming of the moving picture machine, some states provide for the censoring and inspection of moving picture films. Some forbid the sale of cigarettes. All of these laws are aimed at the things that tend to lower the general moral standard of the community, and seek to preserve the same supervision over wrongdoing that the state exercised before it was separated from the church.

II. Functions Related to Crime and Its Treatment The chief service of penal and reformatory institutions is the protection of society and the reform, if possible, of the offender. In addition to the function of apprehending and trying violators of the law, it is a function of the state to maintain institutions for their retention and reformation. In America, owing to the adverse feeling in regard to state encroachments on local government, both the police and the police institutions have been left largely to the local community. The places of imprisonment comprise lock-ups or police stations, jails, workhouses, reformatories, and

prisons or penitentiaries. Lock-ups and police stations are local institutions used chiefly for the retention of arrested persons pending trial. Jails are usually county institutions which serve as police stations and prisons for those serving short sentences, while workhouses are local institutions for the punishment of minor offenses. Reformatories and prisons are state institutions, the one for the reformation of the younger male factors, the other for the keeping of convicted criminals.

(1) State Prisons. In colonial times the imprisonment of offenders was little used, all serious offenses being punished by death, and minor offenses by the stocks or whipping-post. And for many years after the establishment of state prisons, they were little more than cellars and dungeons. But during recent years the idea of punishment has given way to reformation even in the penitentiaries. Very remarkable advances have been made in some states, as for instance in Iowa under the influence of Warden Sanders. State prisons are reserved for the worst criminals and those sentenced to the longest terms. Two systems have been used in their management, the separate system and the congregate system. The former has been used in the Eastern Penitentiary of Pennsylvania and in Europe, but the latter has had the wider application in the United States. Under the separate system the prisoners eat, sleep, and work in separate cells, not being allowed to mix with other prisoners. In the congregate system the men are placed in separate cells at

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night, but work and dine together. Separate prisons are sometimes provided for women. Solitary confinement now is rare, and premiums are placed on good behavior. Employment is now almost universally provided. "Regular, rational, and productive industry is now universally recognized," says Henderson, "as an essential factor in reformation. Many prisoners have grown up without skill and without habits of industry, and these faults and defects have brought them to disgrace and pain. If they are ever to become useful citizens and coöperators, instead of parasites and robbers, they must gain both skill and good habits." In some prisons industries are carried on, such as binder twine plants, broom factories, and similar industries, while in others the convicts are contracted out to work on roads, crush stone, and perform similar work.

In most prisons systems of marking and grades have been installed. The prisoners are classified according to their behavior and industry, and are able to secure promotion from one grade to another. The different grades offer various differences in treatment and compensation, and frequently in accommodations, and by exemplary conduct they can materially shorten their terms of confinement.

(2) Reformatories. With the classification of criminals in regard to their ultimate reformation, there have developed a large number of reformatory institutions. One class of such institutions are known as state reformatories. There are over seventy such re