mosum of the Antilles. It is also found in the berries of the S. nigrum, as well as in the leaves and stems of the S. dulcimara. To obtain it, ammonia is poured into the filtered juice of the berries, when a grayish matter falls down, which is to be collected on a filter, washed, and treated with boiling alcohol. The solamine precipitates from this by evaporation. It is an opaque, white, somewhat pearly-looking powder; without smell; very bitter; fusible below 212 Fahrenheit; decomposable at a higher temperature; insoluble in water, ether, oil of olives, and essence of turpentine; but very soluble in alcohol. It combines with the acids, forming uncrystallizable salts. It is eminently emetic.

SOLAR (from the Latin sol); any thing belonging to the sun. (See the following articles.)

SOLAR DAY. (See Solar Time.) SOLAR MICROSCOPE. (See Microscope; also Optics, division Optical Instruments.) SOLAR PARALLAX. (See Sun.) SOLAR SPOTS. (See Sun.)

SOLAR SYSTEM. Modern astronomy has elevated itself to the notion, that each fixed star is a sun, which we may suppose, according to the law of analogy, accompanied by a system of planets, so that each star may be the centre of a solar system. But in the narrower and most common sense of the phrase, solar system signifies our sun, with the planets, moons and comets that revolve round it. The planets are, Mercury, Venus, Earth, with one moon; Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, with four moons; Saturn, with seven; and lastly Uranus, or Herschel, with six moons already known, and probably others undiscovered. All these planets, accompanied by their moons, move, as do also the comets, in elliptical orbits, around the sun, which is situated in a focus common to all of them, and, by his mighty power of attraction, retains them in their orbits. (See Central Forces.) The moons also describe elliptic orbits around the primary planets, with which, at the same time, they revolve around the sun. Moreover, the planets all have a ro

VOL. XI.

tation on their own axes, which, together with the inclination of these axes towards the plane of the orbits, and their continuance in this situation (parallelism), leads to the idea that all these planets are inhabited by beings endowed with sensation, for whose use these two arrangements seem to have been established. The discoveries of astronomy (e. g. the circumstance, but lately made known by Laplace, that the moons of Jupiter are never all eclipsed at the same time, so that the nights of that planet are never entirely destitute of light) seem to confirm this idea. We can touch upon only a few of the phenomena of our solar system. One of these is the admirable regularity in the distribution of the planets in the heavens. Before the discovery of the four new planets-Ceres, Vesta, Juno and Pallas-it had been ascertained that the distances of the then known planets from the sun increase according to the following series:-4; 4+3; 4+2.3; 4+16.3; 4+32.3; 4+64.3. In this series, a member (4+8.3) was wanting between the members 4+4.3 and 4+16.3, corresponding to Mars and Jupiter, which circumstance gave rise to the supposition of the existence of an undiscovered planet at the above-mentioned distance from the sun-a supposition which has been confirmed by the discovery of the four new planets. Another remarkable circumstance, which indicates a similarity between our earth and the other planets, is the flattening (q. v.) of Jupiter at the poles. The flattening of the earth is ascribed to the original softness of the mass composing it, which yielded to the centrifugal force of rotation. As Jupiter is subject to a very quick rotation, the flattening, supposing this planet also to have consisted originally of a soft mass, would naturally be very great, which late observations have proved to be the case. (For the historical information belonging to this subject, see the articles Copernicus, and Kepler.) The following tabular view presents some of the principal points con nected with our solar system:

66

66

1

25,000 miles. 196,000,000 square miles 170,195,852,160 cubic miles

See Laplace's Exposition du Système du Monde (4th ed., Paris, 1813); Hassenfratz's Cours de Physique Celeste ou Leçons sur l'Exposit. du Système du Monde (Paris, 1803, with engravings). A very full tabular view of the solar system is contained in Littrow's Popular Astronomy (in German, Vienna, 1825, 2 vols., with engravings).

SOLAR TIME. The earth revolves, at the same time, on its own axis and round the sun. During one rotation on its axis, it advances about 1° in its orbit, and must, therefore, after the completion of a rotation, turn as much more as this advance, before the sun can come again to a given meridian. The time, which, in this way, passes between two successive culminations of the sun, is generally called a solar day. But the rapidity of the earth's advance in its orbit, is different at different times: at one period it passes through a larger portion of its orbit in a given time than at others, so that the solar days cannot be equal. Another circumstance, dependent upon the inclination of the axis of the earth to the plane of the ecliptic, is also to be taken into the account. The apparent solar time, therefore, is distinguished from mean solar time, which has reference to an imagined uniformity, in the progress of the earth round the sun, and supposes the axis of the earth to be per

sible, of the same color with the metal that is to be soldered. For the simple solders, each of the metals may be used, according to the nature of that which is to be soldered. For fine steel, copper and brass work, gold and silver may be employed. In the large way, however, iron is soldered with copper, and copper and brass with tin. The most usual solders are the compound, which are distinguished into two principal classes, viz. hard and soft solders. The hard solders are ductile, will bear hammering, and are commonly prepared of the same metal with that which is to be soldered, with the addition of some other, by which a greater degree of fusibility is obtained, though the addition is not always required to be itself easier of fusion. Under this head comes the hard solder for gold, which is prepared from gold and silver, or gold and copper, or gold, silver and copper. The hard solder for silver is prepared from equal parts of silver and brass, but made easier of fusion by the admixture of one sixteenth of zinc. The hard solder for brass is obtained from brass mixed with a sixth, or an eighth, or even one half of zinc, which may also be used for the hard solder of copper. It is sold in the shops in a granulated form, under the name of spelter solder. The soft solders melt easily, but are partly brittle, and therefore cannot be hammered. Of this kind are the following mixtures:-tin and lead in equal parts; of still easier fusion is that consisting of bismuth, tin and lead in equal parts; one or two parts of bismuth, of tin and lead each one part. In the operation of soldering, the surfaces of the metal intended to be joined must be made very clean, and applied to each other. It is usual to secure them by a ligature of iron wire, or other similar contrivance. The solder is laid upon the joint, together with sal-ammoniac and borax, or common glass, according to the degrees of heat intended. These additions defend the metal from oxidation. Glaziers use resin; and pitch is sometimes employed. Tin foil, applied between the joints of fine brass work, first moistened with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac, makes an excellent juncture, care being taken to avoid too

much heat.

SOLDIER;* originally a warrior who serves for pay, from which circumstance,

* One of the many words met with in all the languages of Western Europe, and though originally of Tentonic origin, yet, in its present form, borrowed from the languages of the Latin stock. Soldier (in German, Swedish and French, soldat;

as is shown in the note, the word is derived. In other languages, having corresponding words derived from the same root for instance, in German-soldier is frequently used to denote more especially the modern warrior, contradistinguished to the ancient, as well as to the feudal militia, and to the mercenaries of the middle ages. The first example of mercenaries is found about 700 B. C., in Carthage, if we except the small companies of guards in the service of some kings and tyrants. Carthage, with a moderate population, and much commerce and industry, first kept an army of mercenaries on foot. Yet every citizen continued to be obliged to serve, in case of necessity. These mercenaries disturbed the peace of the city by their conspiracies, and, in most of the struggles for national independence, proved of little use. Carthage, therefore, though defended by numerous fleets and armies, was overthrown by a power of but moderate strength, but relying solely on the valor of its own citizens. The example of Carthage was followed by Syracuse and other governments of Sicily and Lower Italy, and with precisely the same result. In Egypt also, under Psammetichus and his successors, Greek mercenaries were employed (about 656 B. C., on which account the old caste of warriors emigrated to Ethiopia); but a single battle with Cambyses sufficed to overturn the throne of the Pharaohs, already shaken by the warlike hordes of Nebuchadnezzar; and another example was presented of the insufficiency of mercenaries; yet the employment of them became more general. În Persia, military service was confined to the

in Italian, soldato, &c.) comes from the middle Latin term solidarius, one who receives sold (German for military pay, in which sense it is also used in old English writers). This receiving pay distinguished the soldiers from the former feudal militia; and the German word sold came into use because the Swiss were the first hired foot-soldiers; but the term for warrior, derived from it, first received an Italian form, because the Italians first employed hired warriors. From them it spread to the other nations of Europe. The German word sold (Italian soldo, French solde, Spanish sueldo, always signifying the pay of troops) has been derived by some from salt, because salt was given to soldiers as part of their pay; but it ought rather to be derived, with salarium, solvere, and the German zahlen, from the ancient German word sellen (from which the English to sell), which is frequently met with in the authors of Upper Germany, and corresponds to the Swedish sälja. It means to give, to transfer. From this verb comes the ancient Swedish sal, signifying the fine paid for murder. Sol, in Icelandic, to this day, denotes a present, gift, reward-a meaning which sold, the pay of soldiers, probably had originally.

nobler tribes: only on some extraordinary occasions, as the attempt of Xerxes against Greece, the whole nation was called to arms. With the increase of luxury among the ruling tribes, the standing armies of Persia came to be formed chiefly of barbarian and Greek mercenaries; and the consequence was that this vast empire fell to pieces when boldly attacked by the Macedonians. The flower of the army of Alexander also consisted of standing troops; but they were native Macedonians, who, elevated by the genius of their commander, fought for their national honor. In the best times of Greece, her only wars had been of a national character. The battle of Marathon, the noblest conflict recorded in Greek history, was gained by 10,000 Athenian and Platean citizens. But when Athens and Sparta began to contend for the supremacy of Greece; when internal wars became frequent, and degeneracy increased, then mercenaries were employed. The number of citizen-soldiers diminished, and Greece lost her liberty in the battle of Charonea. From the time when standing armies came extensively into use, a melancholy spectacle is presented. Natious appear to await their fate passively. In all directions countries are overrun with troops, and violence prevails. Every successful army establishes an empire; every general becomes a monarch. Thus arose the thrones of the New Macedonian, the Seleucidian, Ptolemæan, and other dynasties. Even in Greece, tyrants (i. e. leaders of bands of warriors) were seen in every city, oppressing the defenceless or peaceable citizen, until, at a later period, republics again arose in Ætolia and Achaia. But the military empires which grew out of the Macedonian conquests, had no firm foundation. They fell in quick succession, when assailed by the national armies of Rome. On the other hand, the small Ætolian and Achæan leagues were conquered with greater difficulty than the wide-spreading empire of Antiochus, and their national warriors were overcome rather by cunning and treachery than by force. In Rome, until the latest times of the republic, the part of the people capable of bearing arms were bound by law to serve, when called upon by the magistrate. No pay was received until a late period; and, when it was at length introduced, on account of the protracted wars, none served for the sake of it, but merely received it as a means of support during service. Down to the times of Marius and Sylla, there were no

mercenaries in the Roman armies, and the period previous to their introduction embraces the greatest triumphs of the Roman arms-the conquest of Italy, with all its difficulties and dangers, the gigantic struggle with Carthage, and the humiliation of the empires which had grown out of the conquests of Alexander. But as the avidity for conquest and plunder increased, and the people and the government became more and more corrupt, standing armies gradually came into use, and soldiers, though enlisted from the citizens, had no longer the character of citizens. Marius, contrary to the ancient laws, introduced the lowest rabble, which had been till then entirely exempt from service, into the legions, and thus changed essentially the spirit of the Roman soldiery. For now the military service became a profession, to which persons flocked, who were destitute of public spirit and true patriotism, and who becaine rather the soldiers of the general than of the country. Yet important victories were still gained (as those of Marius over the Cimbri and Teutones, and those of Sylla over Mithridates), and the armies retained, partially at least, a national character. It was not till the total destruction of liberty that an entire change took place in the military system. Before that time, standing troops had been kept for the defence of the frontiers, and the preservation of tranquillity in the oppressed provinces; but in Rome and Italy the army was obliged to respect the majesty of the people and the authority of the magistrate.

Even the struggles, often attended with bloodshed, which took place in the comitia, and on other occasions, had been chiefly confined to citizens. The soldiers of Sylla were the first who shed the blood of Roman citizens without shame and without punishment. These outrages now became common, and the people were obliged to submit to the arrogance of the generals and the legions, and sometimes to the insolence of an armed rabble, until at length, after a long warfare of factions, the most successful and most artful general concentrated in himself the whole military power, and became unlimited ruler of the people and the army. From this time, there were no longer, either in Rome or the provinces, soldiers of a national character, but only tools of the monarch. The more despotic the government became, and the more the empire was assailed by barbarians, the more numerous and permanent became the standing forces. The ancient laws,

obliging all citizens to serve, were forgot ten, and the characters of citizen and soldier became more and more distinct. Mercenaries were now in request, who were willing to keep the citizens in subjection, for high pay and privileges of various kinds. At a still later period, when the degeneracy of the people was frightfully increased, barbarians were taken into pay, whose interest was still more opposed to that of the Roman citizens. Only in great emergencies, forced levies of the people of the country were resorted to. The emperors granted privilege after privilege, and favor after favor, to these pillars of their tyranny; and the nation was divided into two hostile classes, differing in interests, relations and rights, one of which was degraded by law, and compelled to suffer every outrage which insolence and cruelty could inflict; the other was above the law, and perpetrated with impunity every crime. But even as the people trembled before the tyrants, the tyrants themselves trembled before the pretorian guards, whom they were obliged to caress in all possible ways, and from whom they suffered many insults. The just emperors, friends to the citizens, as Pertinax, Alex. Severus, Balbinus, Probus, Gratian, &c., were killed by the soldiery, who lamented the death of monsters like Caligula and Commodus. At length, the divisions of these very soldiers, who proclaimed emperors at pleasure, shook the empire to its foundation, and the German and Scythian tribes found it easy to conquer Rome, the mistress of the world, whose sway extended over a hundred nations, and who had at her command the resources of the richest countries, and of the most experienced tactics, and whose standing army was three times as numerous as the forces with which, in former times, she had conquered the world. After the fall of Rome, the warlike spirit of the Germans spread over all Western Europe, and as far as Northern Africa. The Germans (Germannen, Wehrmänner, armed men, or men at arms), were a tribe of warriors; and war with them was generally a national affair, not the exclusive concern of one class. Hence, when the people had concluded on war, every man capable of bearing arms was obliged to march into the field. When the Germans had conquered the Roman provinces, their military constitution remained the same, though, at a later period, the obligation to perform military service was attached to a certain property. Those who possessed less than

the required amount combined in greater or less numbers, to send one man into the field: thus the richer part of the nation formed the army. But political changes produced changes in the relations of the soldiers. The conquering tribe often remained in a conquered province, like an army encamped in an enemy's country, separated, as it were, from the natives, who were excluded, partially or entirely, from political rights. A few unfortunate battles were always sufficient to overturn such empires as those of the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, &c.* Only when the conquered and the conquerors became mixed, or the latter were the most numerous, could permanent empires be formed, such as that of the Franks. But, by degrees, the feudal system extinguished allodial independence in the Frankish and other empires. The ancient custom of the Germans to fight not only in the wars of the whole nation, but also in the quarrels of particular leaders, gave rise to this monstrous system, which has kept Europe so long enchained, and has occasioned such an enormous expenditure of blood. Those leaders whose numerous followers had enabled them to render particular services, and those nobles who had distinguished themselves by military talent or valor, and, above all, the king, or chief leader, received large portions of the conquered country, which they again assigned to their followers as fiefs. The latter bound themselves, in return, to continual fidelity, and the performance of military service. The increasing lawlessness of those times obliged the possessors of small allodial estates to surrender them to the more powerful lords, and receive them back as fiefs. (See Feudal System.) Every landed estate became a fief; and this had a powerful effect on the military system.

Wars were now carried on solely or chiefly for the advantage of the prince, but not for the common benefit. The old national militia gradually fell into disuse, nay, was almost forgotten. The kings and princes preferred the service of their vassals, as no resolve of the nation was necessary to call them to arms. The vassals, in their different degrees, formed a sort of standing army, ready to obey every call of the superior lord; and thus all remains of popular liberty were extinguished, and a feudal nobility, that is, nobility of a military character, dependent on the monarch, sprang up. He who was not a vassal of the crown, or of a

*The Turks in Algiers have, till lately, presented an instance of a similar government.