PEACE AND ARBITRATION

JAMES L. TRYON

For several months, The Peace Movement, the organ of the Bureau of International Peace at Berne, suspended publication, but a special meeting of the members of the Bureau and other leading pacifists was called at Brussels on July 31 to make a last appeal for peace. The Dutch peace societies have federated for the purpose of instituting an active peace propaganda and have proposed that similar collective action be taken by peace agencies in countries where the forces of peace are not yet united.

The Church Peace Union.-The chief continues, it is unlikely to be held. development in the organized peace The date of the Hague Conference, movement of the United States was though proposed by the United States the foundation on Feb. 10 of the Car- for 1915, is undetermined. negie Church Peace Union, which was endowed by Andrew Carnegie with $2,000,000 in five per cent. bonds. The object of the Union is to interest religious bodies in international arbitration and peace. Bishop David H. Greer is president and Dr. Frederick Lynch secretary. A headquarters office has been established at 70 Fifth Avenue, New York City. In conjunction with the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, Dr. Charles S. Macfarland, secretary, and committees of European church associations, the Union was instrumental in calling Although plans for international two peace conferences, one for dele- congresses have been interrupted by gates of Catholic churches to meet at the war, the peace movement has acLiège, and the other for delegates of quired such momentum that no perProtestant churches to meet at Con-manent break but rather an accelerastance in August. Owing to the outbreak of the war, formal sessions of both bodies had to be given up, but at a preliminary meeting of about 80 delegates representing the United States, Great Britain, France, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries, held at Constance on Aug. 2, resolutions were passed emphasizing the duty of the churches to work for international peace, and an executive committee composed of representatives of several denominations was created to organize the churches for united action against war in the future. The conference then adjourned to London, where, on Aug. 5, the international situation was discussed.

The European War.-The outbreak of the war caused the postponement of the meetings of the Interparliamentary Union at Stockholm, the Institute of International Law at Munich, the International Law Association at The Hague, and the International Peace Congress at Vienna, the programmes of all of which included questions relating to peace and arbitration. The headquarters of the Interparliamentary Union were temporarily moved from Brussels to Christiania, Norway. The conference of the Union in 1915 was expected to meet in the United States, but if the war

tion in its onward course is anticipated. This is due to the war itself, which has focused public attention on the need of reform in the conduct of international relations. So far as a consensus of opinion has been revealed in the utterances of publicists and statesmen who are identified in the United States with international justice and peace, the spread of militarism, which with imperialism is regarded as a chief cause of the war, is opposed, as are secret treaties of alliance. Propositions for permanent peace emphasize the necessity for a federation of Europe or an international union of world-wide scope with control over questions of peace and war by the people rather than by cabinets, and with laws against taking territory without consent of its inhabitants. The Union of Democratic Control which has been organized in London substantially on these lines, advocates also the government ownership of armament plants. The reference of controversies to arbitration or judicial methods of procedure, and the institution of commissions of inquiry to determine facts in dispute are insisted upon as before the war; while the enforcement, if necessary, of international treaties as well as court decisions by international military

and naval forces made up of contin- tor) far-reaching plans have been gents from all nations is advocated. made for the extension of the scienCarnegie Endowment for Interna- tific study of international law having tional Peace.-Viewed from a broad peace propagandist value of a high orstandpoint of internationalism, the der. This Division will secure the many-sided activities of the Carnegie publication of the decisions of cases in Endowment for International Peace international law by John Marshall, indicate that it is becoming both an by the United States Supreme Court effective and permanent factor in the generally, by high courts in Great promotion of international fraternity Britain, and by the Hague Court, with and justice. The American Branch of its awards. Arrangements for the pubthe International Conciliation, one of lication of treaties that are recognized the most influential adjuncts of the as sources of international law have Division of Intercourse and Education been made with M. Jules Badevant. (Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, direc- A history of the origin and developtor), has continued its work of sup-ment of international law will be writplying information to the press, pub- ten by Professor Nys, and a revision lishing periodical pamphlet literature, made by Professor Merignhac of his including in 1914 documents relating to the war in Europe, and providing lecturers. As a counterpart of the friendly visit of Dr. Hamilton Wright Mabie to Japan, Dr. Shosuke Sato, dean of the Agricultural College of the Northeastern University of Japan, has been engaged to give addresses in this country on Japan. The efforts of the Division have been reinforced both in America and England by Norman Angell, the publication of whose new magazine War and Peace is calculated to extend the influence of his ideas.

work on arbitration, with a view to bringing it down to date as a historical survey of the subject; while for the purpose of helping the student as well as the expert certain meritorious treatises on international law will be rendered into languages other than those in which they were written.

On Jan. 29 the Academy of International Law was founded at The Hague with the coöperation of the Endowment and will have its home in the Palace of Peace. The Academy, as the instrument that created it sets forth, will be a "center of advanced The Division of Intercourse and Ed-study of international law both public ucation has assisted in the circula- and private, and of related sciences." tion of thousands of copies of The Great Illusion in Europe. Among the reports published by this division during the year are those made by Dr. Charles W. Eliot, on his visit to the Far East; Dr. Wilhelm Paszkowski, on German international progress in 1913; Dr. Hamilton Wright Mabie, on his sojourn in Japan; the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan wars; and Dr. Harry Erwin Bard, on the international and cultural relations between the United States and other republics of America (see IV, Latin America).

Beginning with 1915, sessions will be held every year from June to October. Great authorities, who will be selected from different countries, will give impartial instruction to advanced students, some of whom are expected to be government appointees from different countries. A board of trustees has been selected with Prof. Louis Renault as president.

Other American Agencies.-The American Peace Society (Dr. Benjamin F. Trueblood, secretary, Arthur Deerin Call, executive director) has within the past seven years increased its membership over 600 per cent. and within two years has added 18 new local societies to its constituent body. Its monthly edition of the Advocate of Peace, which since 1835 has been the organ of the American peace movement, has a circulation of 11,000. There is a movement to develop more In the Division of International extensively the membership and scope Law (Dr. James Brown Scott, direc-of the National Peace Council, the

In the Division of Economics and History (Prof. John Bates Clark, director) arrangements were made for holding a conference of the committees of research at Lucerne beginning Aug. 5, but the war prevented other than a small meeting.

functions of which are by agreement | Peace Foundation. By his will, Mr.

assigned to the Board of Directors of the American Peace Society.

Ginn provided a yearly income of about $50,000 for the perpetuation of The Lake Mohonk Conference was his Foundation, which continues unheld May 27-29. Its chairman, Prof. der the direction of Edwin D. Mead. John Bassett Moore, gave a notable Arbitration.-About thirty treaties review of the international situation. have been negotiated by the DepartThe conference called renewed atten- ment of State embodying the Bryan tion to the necessity of such legisla- plan for commissions of inquiry, and tion as shall place all matters involv- other treaties of a like nature are in ing the relations of the United States course of negotiation. Agreements exto aliens and to foreign nations under tending the Root arbitration conventhe direct and effectual control of the tions have been signed and proclaimed Federal Government and the jurisdic- with Austria-Hungary, Costa Rica, tion of the Federal courts. The ABC France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, mediation between the United States Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and and Mexico (see supra) was heart- Switzerland. Other arbitration treaily approved not only by the Mohonk ties have been signed but not proConference but by the peace socie- claimed with The Netherlands and ties of the country, which regarded Paraguay. (See also I, American Hisit as a step forward in the movement tory.) against war and for better relations with Latin-American countries.

The Intercollegiate Peace Association (Prof. Stephen F. Weston of Yellow Springs, Ohio, secretary) has increased the number of intercollegiate oratorical contests. The American colleges were divided into five great groups, all of which sent to Mohonk a candidate for a national prize.

The process of arbitration by special commissions in various countries is too extensive to permit of particular record. Of most interest to the United States, however, are the proceedings for the settlement of the Panama-Costa Rica boundary dispute, which were undertaken as a result of the friendly offices of our Government. Chief Justice White of the United The American School Peace League States Supreme Court, as sole arbitra(Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, tor, made his award Sept. 12, 1914, secretary) has extended its work gen- substantially in favor of the second erally throughout the country among of two lines asked by Costa Rica. (See the teachers of the public schools. The also IV, Latin America.) The Amerannual meeting of the League was ican-British claims commission has held in St. Paul, where teaching of in- | decided several cases, reports of which ternationalism in the schools was ap- may be found in the American Jourproved by the National Education As-nal of International Law. The comsociation.

The observance of the Centenary of Peace by the United States and Great Britain will be delayed and probably modified, but it is the intention of the committees to carry forward their work at the proper time. The British Peace Centenary Committee has already purchased Sulgrave Manor, at one time the home of the Washington family in England, for the purpose of making it a place of call for Americans and a museum of Anglo-American history.

mission adjourned its last session, which was held in London, in the hope of resuming its sittings in Washington in 1915. Arrangements have proceeded for reference to the Hague Court of the case of France, Great Britain and Spain against the Government of the Portuguese Republic in the matter of claims relating to the ecclesiastical properties of French, British and Spanish nationals expropriated by the Government after the proclamation of the republic; and of a controversy between France and During the year the peace cause has Peru over financial claims. On June lost by death Albert Gobat, Director 25 the Hague Court gave its decision of the Bureau of International Peace sustaining the contention of the Nethat Berne, the Baroness Von Suttner, erlands Government in the case of the author of Lay Down Your Arms, and Netherlands-Portuguese boundary in Edwin Ginn, founder of the World the Island of Timor.

IV. FOREIGN AFFAIRS

LATIN AMERICA

ROSCOE R. HILL

tries and by establishing moratoria in all except Chile, Colombia, Honduras and Venezuela. All possible means for reducing expenditures were resorted to, including the reduction of salaries of public officials in Argentina, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Uruguay. Railway construction and public works continued or were suspended depending upon the greater or less ability to secure funds.

General Survey of Conditions.-The the protection of credit were taken feature of the history of the Latin by declaring bank holidays and closAmerican republics of predominant ing stock exchanges in all the counimportance during 1914 was the depressed financial conditions. These countries, rich in natural resources, are dependent upon foreign capital to carry on their economic development. Abundant harvests and over-stimulated prosperity during 1912-13, especially in southern South America, led to extravagance in both public and private expenditure, which necessitated further supplies of money. In other countries disturbed political The most serious problem of Latin conditions seriously affected the finan-America resulting from the European cial situation. With a fair amount War was commercial readjustment. of capital, these difficulties might England, Germany and France conhave been overcome, but on account of trolled about 44 per cent. of the the situation in Europe at the begin-Latin American trade. Germany's porning of the year, money could be bor- tion of this percentage was completerowed only at excessive rates of interest if at all, causing embarrassment to some of the governments. Interest and payments on the national debts, however, were regularly paid except in Mexico and Nicaragua, and conversion of paper money continued in Argentina and Brazil and plans for carrying out the same process were made in Chile. Further financial difficulties resulted from the numerous commercial failures, especially in Argentina and Brazil, and from the decided falling off of revenues in all the countries. Several governments at first failed in floating new loans, but were in a fair way to adjust matters when the European War broke out. This added new complications and conditions became worse. Negotiations for prospective loans were dropped, commerce was hampered, industries were suspended, and revenues continued rapidly to decrease. Measures for

ly suspended, and the share of England and France was greatly reduced, producing in Latin America a shortage in manufactured articles and an inability to market its raw materials. This condition was not so acute in the countries surrounding the Caribbean Sea, where the share of the trade controlled by the United States is much larger than it is in the remainder of Latin America.

The changes in international relations, the opening of the Panama Canal, the conflict raging in Europe, and the increasing commercial importance of the Latin American states, are facts which have served to create generally among Latin Americans a feeling of great responsibility in respect to world politics. Further, the effect of the European struggle has been to foster in the Western Hemisphere a sense of common interest and Pan-American solidarity. An evidence

of this fact was the proposal by a number of South American governments and the consideration by the United States and the Latin American countries of suggestions looking toward the creation of a vast neutral zone, including both Americas, for the protection of American commerce against interference from the European belligerents. On the whole the sympathies of Latin America toward the European contestants were the same as those of the United States. There were complaints that the countries of the west coast of South America had allowed violations of their neutrality, but prompt denials, and a reassertion of neutrality were made by the governments of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile (see also III, International Relations).

United States and Latin America may be most amicable and harmonious and that a more genuine spirit of coöperation may be engendered, it is necessary that the intellectual and cultural relations be developed coördinately with the commercial and political ones. The steps taken by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace were a most noteworthy achievement in this direction. A tour of Latin America under its auspices by a representative group of university men headed by Dr. Harry Erwin Bard showed that strong feelings of friendship existed and the official report pointed out ways by which our relations with Latin America, both intellectual and cultural, might be further extended and strengthened. The explorations of Mr. Roosevelt, in which the Brazilians coöperated, also served to develop these relations.

During the year many new steps looking toward the further expansion of the commercial relations of the From a political standpoint Latin United States and Latin America America was much more disturbed were taken. These included commer- during 1914 than during the precedcial tours, the appointment of com- ing year. In addition to Mexico, mercial attachés by the United States which continued its civil struggle, Government, and the establishment of Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Nicabranches of American banks in Latin-ragua, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador and American capitals under the terms of the Federal Reserve Act. The European conflict opened up new possibilities in trade and a new interest was developed in the study of Latin American trade opportunities, their conditions, and the manner in which they should be developed.

The political relations of Latin America, except Mexico, and the United States were most friendly, as evidenced by the numerous peace treaties which were signed (see III, International Relations). The rather violent adjustments which were necessary to secure the completion of the interoceanic canal have been accepted by all Latin America and the great value of this waterway to its future development is recognized everywhere. Besides, the attitude and acts of the United States Government created a growing sense of security there with regard to the future actions of this country and helped to dispel the fear felt in some quarters, and propagated often by European influences, that the ruling motive of the United States is land hunger.

In order that the relations of the

Haiti suffered revolutionary movements of greater or less seriousness. The remaining countries enjoyed internal peace, which was an important element in aiding them to weather the disturbed economic conditions described above.

Social and educational interests received an increasing amount of attention in all Latin America. Extensive plans for municipal betterment were considered and undertaken, including port works, transportation facilities, sewage and sanitation, schools and other public buildings, and workingmen's homes.

In educational lines there was a notable tendency to emphasize practical education, athletics and sports.

Argentina.-President Roque Saenz Peña, on account of illness, secured an indefinite leave of absence early in the year, and Vice-President Victorino de la Plaza took control of the administration. Because of certain differences in the policies of the President and Vice-President, the entire Cabinet resigned in February and a new one was formed by Plaza, thus allowing him to carry on in a more