were to furnish the connection be- | the Chief Engineer's office. The Centween Gatun Lake and the channel tral division was abolished on Oct. to be dredged 81⁄2 miles northward to 10, 1913, when the dike at Gamboa, and through Limon Bay on the At- which held back the waters of Gatun lantic. From the southern part of Lake, was blown up and the flooding Gatun Lake, 24 miles southwest of of the Culebra Cut, which had begun Gatun, a deep cut was to be made on Oct. 1, was completed; and the through the highland for a distance Atlantic division, as well as the fifth of about nine miles to Pedro Miguel. division of the Chief Engineer's ofAt this point locks were to provide fice, passed out of existence on Feb. 1, connections with a small lake, of a 1914, the Gatun dam having been width of about 11⁄2 miles, to be formed practically completed. 30 ft. below the level of Gatun Lake, by impounding the waters of the Cocoli River. From this lake two pairs of locks in series were to furnish connection with a channel passing out 81⁄2 miles to the Pacific Ocean. In the estimate made in 1906 it was thought that the total excavation necessary would amount to 106,735,000 cu. yd., the filling to 36,580,000 cu. yd. and the concrete material to 3,000,000 cu. yd., but revised estimates in 1908 placed the excavation at 174,666,595 cu. yd., the filling at 29,387,000 cu. yd. and the concrete at 5,015,000 cu. yd. These estimates also fell far short of later ones.

Organization.-On July 1, 1908, Colonel Goethals brought into effect the organization by which the work of constructing the canal was accomplished. Three great construction divisions were established, each under the charge of a division engineer. The Atlantic division, under Major W. L. Sibert, had charge of the work extending from the deep water in the Caribbean to include the Gatun locks and dam; the Central division, under Lieut.-Col. D. D. Gaillard, had from Gatun dam to the Pedro Miguel locks, including the Culebra Cut; and the Pacific division, under S. B. Williamson, had from Pedro Miguel locks to the deep waters of the Pacific. Three additional divisions had charge of the mechanical and other accessory problems of design and engineering, and a quartermaster's and a subsistence department had charge of the recruitment of labor, the division of materials and supplies, and the subsistence of employees.

On Dec. 12, 1912, the work of the Pacific division was advanced so far that that division was abolished and the remainder of the work placed under the second and fifth division of

On April 1, 1914, in accordance with the provisions of the Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24, 1912, put in effect by an executive order signed Jan. 27, 1914, the Isthmian Canal Commission ceased to exist. It was succeeded by the Panama Canal with Colonel Goethals as Governor (see also I, American History). Only a few elements of the old organization are still retained to carry to completion the work yet remaining.

The Channel. The total length of the canal from deep water to deep water in the two oceans is 50.3 miles, the length from shore line to shore line being about nine miles less. When finished the minimum bottom width of the channel, occurring in the Culebra Cut, will be 300 ft.; the minimum depth in the submarine and earth section will be 41 ft., and in the deep cut 45 ft.

Excavation.-Up to Aug. 1, 1914, the total amount of canal excavation was 224,073,363 cu. yd., and the estimated amount of excavation remaining to be done was 14,722,224 cu. yd. Of the quantity excavated 50,209,958 cu. yd. was removed from the Atlantic section, 116,197,952 cu. yd. from the Central section, of which 103,252,128 cu. yd. came from the Culebra Cut, and 57,665,453 cu. yd. from the Pacific section. From Jan. 1 to July 31, 1914, the amount of excavation was 8,616,660 cu. yd. Of the total excavation accomplished 130,160,048 cu. yd. was dry and 93,914,884 cu. yd. was wet. The greatest quantity of work done in a single year was done in 1908 when the excavation amounted to 37,116,735 cu. yd. On Dec. 1, 1908, it was estimated that the total excavation for the canal would be 174,666,594 cu. yd. Each year this estimate increased, the estimate of July 1, 1914, reaching 238,845,587 cu.

yd., an increase of 64,178,993 cu. yd. over the estimate of 1908. For 35,158,225 cu. yd. of this increase, or more than 50 per cent., the slides in the Culebra Cut section were responsible.

ing the current for running the machinery used in connection with the operation and maintenance of the canal. The dry fill on Gatun Dam was practically finished on Dec. 15, 1913, additional fill being made since only for grading purposes. The total fill to Aug. 1, 1914, was: wet, 10,728,965 cu. yd., dry, 12,195,017 cu. yd., a total of 22,923,982 tu. yd. Filling Gatun Lake to its final level began June 27, 1913, by closing the sluice gates in the spillway dam. By Dec. 29 the surface of the lake had attained a level of about 85 ft. above sea, at which it has since been maintained, regulated by the gates in the dam. The fill for Pedro Miguel Dam, which, extending from Pedro Miguel locks to the high ground to the westward, maintains the water level of Gatun Lake at the south, contained 695,938 cu. yd., all dry, and was completed in August, 1913. The dry fill for Miraflores Dam was finished in February, 1914, amounting to 1,758,423 cu. yd., in addition to the wet fill of 661,048 cu. yd., completed in December, 1911. The spillways, where the gates which regulate the height of the water in the lakes are installed, were all completed in 1913.

Locks. There are six double locks in the Canal, three pairs in series at Gatun with a combined lift of 85 ft., one pair at Pedro Miguel with a lift of 30 1/3 ft., and two pairs at Miraflores with a combined lift of 54 2/3 ft. The dimensions of all the locks are the same, each having a usable length of 1,000 ft. and a width of 110 ft. The depth of the water on the sills is 40 ft. in salt water and 41 1/3 ft. in fresh water. The mass masonry for all the locks was completed in May, 1913. The total amount of concrete in the locks on Aug. 1, 1914, was as follows: Gatun, 2,068,830 cu. yd.; Pedro Miguel, 928,267 cu. yd.; Miraflores, 1,507,765 cu. yd. The lock gates are steel structures, seven feet in thickness, 65 ft. long and from 47 to 82 ft. high. Intermediate gates are provided so that if desired lock chambers of 400 ft. and 600 ft. in length may be made. All gates at Pedro Miguel were completed on June 3, 1914, those at Miraflores on Jan. 17, and those at Gatun on Jan. 19. No vessel is permitted to enter or pass through the locks on its own power, but all are towed by electric locomotives running on cog-rails laid on top of the walls on each side of the lock chambers. The gates, the valves, and all other machinery employed in the operation of the locks are run by electricity. The time required to pass a vessel through all the locks is approx-than 21 slides developed during the imately three hours, and the time of passage of a vessel through the entire canal varies as a rule from nine to twelve hours.

Dams. The construction of the great Gatun Dam, by which the valley of the Chagres River was converted into a lake, was one of the most essential and important features of the canal project. The dam is 8,000 ft. long, 2,100 ft. wide at the base, and 100 ft. wide at the top. The crest of the dam has an elevation of 105 ft. above mean sea level, or 20 ft. above the normal level of the lake. A hydroelectric plant has been installed at the dam, its turbogenerators supply

Culebra Cut. The task of making the excavation through the highland was one of the most difficult problems in the construction of the canal. Not only was there an enormous amount of material normally filling the space to be occupied by the canal prism, but huge slides occurred on both sides of the cut, necessitating additional excavation of millions of yards. No less

period of construction, varying in area from one to 55 acres. Water was finally admitted to the Cut in October, 1913, and since then the work of excavation has been done by dredges. On Aug. 1, 1914, there still remained 4,581,692 cu. yds. to be dredged from the Cut, practically all of which was due to slides. On Sept. 15, just a month after the canal was opened, a slide occurred north of Gold Hill, on the east side of the canal, blocking the channel with several thousand cubic yards of stone and earth. Within four days, however, a channel 150 ft. wide, with an average depth of 35 ft., was established and

the canal was again opened to traffic. | necessary to pay when work comOther slides have since caused minor interruptions.

.

Entrances. The dredging of the Atlantic entrance to the Canal is practically completed. Two breakwaters are being constructed at Limon Bay, one of which, the Toro Point breakwater, is practically completed. At the Pacific entrance of the canal, the Naos Island breakwater extending from Balboa to Naos Island, a distance of 17,000 ft., is virtually finished. At both entrances modern coaling stations and fuel oil plants are nearing completion, and large steel piers with modern equipment are being constructed. At the Pacific entrance a large dry dock is in the process of construction.

menced. Various changes in the plan of construction caused an increase in the quantity of work to be done and unforeseen difficulties of construction arose to add still further to the cost. In February, 1909, a completely revised estimate placed the cost of engineering and construction at $297,766,000, adding to which the purchase price and the cost of civil government and sanitation brought the total cost of the canal up to $375,201,000. The total bond issue authorized by Congress for the construction of the canal amounts to $375,200,900. The total appropriations for the construction of the canal, including those for the fiscal year of 1915, amount to $361,974,861.58; the appropriations for fortifiShops.-The permanent shops of the cations, $12,050,775; and for the recanal, consisting of 28 buildings, have lief of private persons, $22,508.01. been completed during the year and Of these sums, $20,718,000 for conthe machinery and equipment of near-struction and $1,124,475 for fortificaly all the other shops previously established along the canal have been transferred to the new establishment. Labor. The number of employees in the working force of the Panama Canal on July 22, 1914, was 27,044; of the Panama Railroad Co., 5,314; and of the contractors, 79; a total effective force of 32,437. This was a decrease of 10,047 as compared with the working force of July 30, 1913.

Cost of the Canal. The board of engineers which investigated the canal project in 1899-1901 estimated that the cost of construction, including sanitation and police, would amount to $144,233,458, and it was practically this sum that the Spooner Act authorizing the digging of the canal provided for. In 1906 the minority of the board of engineers which had under consideration the question of which type of canal should be built estimated that the cost of the work, carried out on the plans which they suggested, would be $139,705,200. Both these estimates, however, placed the cost of materials and wages at a much lower figure than it was found

tions were contained in the Sundry Civil Act approved on Aug. 1, 1914.

Up to June 30, 1914, the total receipts for canal purposes amounted to $360,920,975.27, including Congressional appropriations of $352,205,669.59 and miscellaneous receipts from the water rentals, the sale of government property, etc. The total classified expenditures for the canal up to June 30, 1914, amounted to $332,939,626, with the amounts for various items as follows: civil administration and law, $7,217,405; hospitals and asylums, $9,001,581; sanitation, $7,109,745; construction and repair of buildings, $1,148,472; department of construction and engineering, $211,295,071; general items, $90,374,263; fortifications, $6,793,090. Other expenditures brought the total net disbursements to $349,555,833.77, leaving a balance available on June 30, 1914, of $11,365,141.50. Nearly two-thirds of the total canal expenditures have been paid from current revenues, bonds having been issued only to the amount of $135,000,000.

XI. PUBLIC SERVICES

RICHARD C. HARRISON

FRANCHISES

five-cent fare to Carthage and Hartwell, two suburbs of the city. The court held that the Company was in possession of indefeasible rights under its various franchises and was entitled to collect extra fares.

The Indeterminate Franchise.--The Council to compel the Cincinnati & indeterminate franchise with tenure Hamilton Traction Co. to establish a to the grantee during good behavior continues to attract the favorable attention of the more progressive communities which are still in a position to control substantial franchise rights in their streets. In most of the socalled "home-rule" charters which have recently been drafted the indeterminate franchise is found either as a required or optional form of grant. During 1914 the most notable victory for this type of franchise was its optional acceptance in Indiana by one of the largest electrical corporations in the state in exchange for its existing franchise. A curious distrust of public-utility corporations appeared in the revision of the Dallas charter, which provided that even in the case of indeterminate grants the extreme limit should be 20 years.

pro

Dallas.-The revised charter voted on in January contains very interesting provisions for the regulation of franchises. The extreme term of future grants was fixed at 20 years even in the case of indeterminate franchises. Experience in other cities, notably New York, has shown that the placing of a short-term limit has had the effect of reducing applications for franchises to a point where service has suffered through lack of much-needed extensions. Other interesting provisions worked out by the Dallas Charter Committee are: vision for a referendum vote in all proposed indeterminate grants; authorization to the city to compel extensions of service; power to include in the franchise contract regulations fixing the character of service and the rates to be charged; provision for a city Department of Public Utilities; elimination of the fixed tax of 4 per cent. on gross revenues and provision that the city may, by contract, agree to accept a percentage either of the gross or net revenues and such other payments as may be fixed as consideration for the grant. The city is given broad powers of control over the construction of public utilities and over their maintenance. An important provision allows the city to require "adequate" as distinguished from "reasonable" service from streetcar companies. Consolidation of the

Chicago. The report of the streetrailway company for the fiscal year ending Jan. 31, 1914, under the terms of the settlement ordinance of 1907, shows increasing prosperity and a large profit to the city. Its share amounted to $1,855,882, as against $1,413,404 for the preceding year. At the same time, the report shows that the investment in the plant is increasing at a rate which makes the exercise of the city's option of purchase an exceedingly remote possibility. On Feb. 1, 1914, the surface lines introduced a notable improvement in service and established a flat rate of fare of five cents to all parts of the city, with a universal transfer system. Several hundred new cars of an improved type were put in operation.

Cincinnati.-The Federal court has defeated the attempt of the City

Dallas street railways was provided | franchise grants the city may include for as part of the adjustment of ex- an option to purchase the plant of isting difficulties with the companies. the grantee at the end of ten years The original draft contained a pro- from the date of the contract or at vision prohibiting any street railway the end of any subsequent five-year from entering into the business of term. Franchises are to be granted supplying current for electric light, by the Board of Aldermen and not heat or power. This was eliminated from the final draft. No franchise submitted to the voters can become effective unless at least 25 per cent. of the electorate are recorded in its favor.

PUBLIC SERVICE

Defects of Regulation by Commis- Illinois and Pennsylvania, began work sion.-Owing to the practice of hold- on January 1. In the absence of new ing biennial sessions of the legislature statutes, the chief interest centers in in the majority of states, there was the shifting personnel of the various little change in the statutory regu- state bodies in existence. The stronglation of public-utility commissions est criticism leveled against publicduring 1914. No new commissions service regulation by commission has were created. The Colorado statute, always been that appointments would however, which was in the doubtful inevitably be dictated in the majority class owing to its suspension by of cases not by fitness of the candireferendum petition, was validated date but by personal and political through discovery of the illegality of considerations. This has unfortuthe petition. Two new commissions, nately proved true. In New York