July 30, 1914) is a characteristically acute and controversial defense of the subjectivity of the secondary qualities, such as color, sound, etc. H. B. Alexander has written an interesting and original paper on "The Perception of Motion" (ibid., May 31, 1914). and insisting against the "neutral | 1, 1914). "Relativity, Reality and Conmonists" upon the necessity of suppos- tradiction," by A. O. Lovejoy (ibid., ing a distinctly mental element or act. The interest in Mr. Russell's work has called forth a considerable amount of discussion and criticism. The Western Philosophical Association devoted one of its sessions to a discussion of "The Neo-realistic Doctrine of Relations" in which the "internal" and There are signs of a considerable re"external" theories were opposed and vival of interest in pragmatism and disputed. Among the published criti- allied tendencies. W. Caldwell's cisms of the realistic or external the- Pragmatism and Idealism (Adam and ory, the following should be men- Charles Black) is a clearly written tioned: "Isolated Knowledge," by A. survey and criticism of the movement. W. Moore (Jour. of Philos., July 16, W. Fite has written two acute papers 1914); "Transcendentalism and the in which he has attempted to solve Externality of Relations," by G. A. the underlying problem which he beTawney (ibid., July 30, 1914); "The lieves partially justifies pragmatism. Externality of Relations," by E. H. The first of these papers is entitled Hollands (ibid., Aug. 13, 1914). An "Pragmatism and Science" (Philos. important contribution to the litera- Rev., July, 1914); the second, "Pragture of realism is S. Alexander's "The matism and Truth" (ibid., Sept., Basis of Realism," delivered before 1914) develops the thesis that facts the British Academy on Jan. 28, and are independent, but "responsive" to since published in the Academy's Pro- human needs. This view is designed ceedings. The author develops the to save what is good in both pragthesis of the object's independence of matism and realism. The useful and the mind, and argues that this does attractive series of "Philosophies, Annot diminish the dignity of mind, but cient and Modern" (Dodge Publishing rather enhances it, mind being a com- Co.), has added to its list Pragmaparatively late and a comparatively tism, by D. L. Murray, and William perfect development. This is the place James, by H. V. Knox, one-sided and to mention also the presidential ad- inadequate but well written handdress of E. B. McGilvary, delivered books calculated to popularize this before the American Philosophical As- movement. Meanwhile the interest in sociation in December, 1913 (Philos. Bergson continues unabated. Mr. RusRev., March, 1914). The address was sell's effective criticism has been reentitled "Time and the Experience of published in Cambridge (The PhilosoTime," and contains interesting com- phy of Bergson, Bowes and Bowes), toments on the views of Bergson and gether with a reply by H. W. Carr and James, together with an attempted a counter-reply by the author. solution of the traditional paradoxes. acute answer to the same paper has The writings of Russell and Holt, been written by Miss K. Costelloe and of realists generally, represent a (Monist, Jan., 1914). The Bergsonian special emphasis upon the study of interpretation of life is treated by J. perception. The philosophy of the W. Scott in "The Ethical Pessimism day is peculiarly empirical, and at- of Bergson" (Mind, July, 1913). A taches great importance to the part more important and very suggestive played in knowledge by the senses. discussion of the matter is to be found Hence the questions concerning the in two lectures entitled "Bergson and data of sense, the aberrations and rel- Romantic Evolutionism," delivered by ativities of sense, and the connection A. O. Lovejoy before the Philosophical of sensation with the physical stimu- Union of the University of California, lus and the organism, are all in the and since published in the University foreground of discussion. A valuable of California Chronicle (xv, no. 4). summary and introduction to these These lectures relate Bergson's religproblems are afforded by M. T. Mc-ious views to Darwinism, and show Clure's "An Orientation to the Study that their real importance lies in of Perception" (Jour. of Philos., Jan. their emphasis upon the temporal or An developmental nature of God. At the same time the author brings clearly to light a profound ambiguity or duality in the Bergsonian view. For Bergson's notion of the indivisible unity of time points to a monistic absolutism that does not harmonize with the importance that he attaches to natural evolution. The universal life tends to concentrate into a metaphysical point, in which all differences, including that between earlier and later in the stream of time, are lost. H. M. Kallen in an article entitled "James, Bergson, and Traditional Metaphysics" (Mind, April, 1913) makes the same point in showing a deep divergence between Bergson and James. Bergson, this writer thinks, is at bottom an old-fashioned absolutist, resembling Plato and Spinoza; whereas James with his emphasis upon the empirical ultimateness of differences and relations retains to the end, despite a partial coincidence with Bergson's philosophy, a diversified and pluralistic world. It is only fair to say that discussions of Bergson's philosophy of religion are somewhat hypothetical and premature. He has not yet expressed himself on the subject with any finality, and further criticism should be suspended at least until his Gifford Lectures are available. The first of these, "The Human Personality," was given at Edinburgh, April 21. The most important idealistic publication during the year was F. H. Bradley's Essays on Truth and Reality (Clarendon Press). The volume contains articles written during the last five or six years, chiefly for Mind. These essays are important for the light they throw on the attitude of the traditional and once authoritative philosophy toward the newer work of James, Dewey and Russell. An event of general importance in the philosophical world was the death in 1912 of Henri Poincaré (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 596); his Science and Method has been published in English (trans. by F. Maitland, Thos. Nelson & Sons) with an introduction by B. Russell, who expresses the opinion that the work of Poincaré constitutes the best existing treatment of science for philosophers. A somewhat isolated but not the less important piece of philosophical work is the series of articles entitled "A Definition of Causation," by W. H. Sheldon (Jour. of Philos., April 9, May 7, June 4, July 2, 1914). The topic is approached by an examination of the actual instances of causation afforded by science, and the author concludes that the notion may be reduced to the relation of self-repetition. Ethics. The American Philosophical Association devoted two of its sessions in December, 1913, to a discussion of the topic of "Value." The two leading papers in this discussion were "An Empirical Definition of Value," by W. H. Sheldon (Jour. of Philos., Feb. 26, 1914), a study of instances; and "The Definition of Value," by R. B. Perry (ibid., March 12, 1914), a classification and criticism of doctrines. The Conference on Ethics and Jurisprudence, meeting in Chicago, April 10 and 11, discussed "Natural Rights" and "The Relation of Rule and Discretion." A very important book on psychological aspects of ethical inquiry is A. T. Shands' The Foundations of Character (Macmillan). History of Philosophy.-F. Thilly (History of Philosophy, Holt) has written a textbook in the outlines of the history of philosophy. B. Rand has edited Shaftesbury's Second Characters (Cambridge University Press), and G. T. Whitney and P. H. Fogel have prepared An. Introduction to Kant's Critical Philosophy (Macmillan) for beginning students. J. Burnet's Greek Philosophy: Part I, Thales to Plato (Macmillan), is the first of an important series. The 700th anniversary of the birth of Roger Bacon was celebrated at Oxford on June 10. A volume is in preparation, containing essays by experts on the various aspects of Bacon's work. Logic. The most important work in this field is the continuation of the monumental Principia Mathematica, by A. N. Whitehead and B. Russell. In the later volumes of this work (Cambridge University Press) special attention is given to the extension of symbolic logic to the field of physics. A work so comprehensive and at the same time so rigorous and difficult will require time for its assimilation, but it has already called forth significant short articles by H. M. Sheffer, C. I. Lewis, N. Wiener and others. XXVIII. THE MEDICAL SCIENCES ANATOMY G. CARL HUBER General Survey of Progress. there occurred a constriction of the Worthy of special note in the general cytoplasm which resulted in the sepprogress of anatomy in America dur- aration of a non-nucleated hemoglobin ing the year 1914 are the organiza- containing corpuscle and a nucleated tion and subsidization by the Carnegie structure, a process which seems norInstitute at Washington, of a depart- mal in circulating blood. Swift (ibid., ment of research in embryology, lo- xv) has considered the question of cated at Baltimore, under the direc- the origin of the germ cells in chick tion of Franklin P. Mall, with whom embryos, and has shown that they are enlisted in this service four re- may be recognized early by their size, search associates. The recognition of nuclear structure, large attraction embryology as a special department sphere and yolk content. They have of research is most encouraging. In origin in a specialized region of the an organized Institute of this nature germ-wall entoderm anterior and latextended problems, the investigation eral to the embryo and primitive of which needs access to abundant streak. With the formation of the material and ample time, may be undertaken with promise of results which cannot help but further anatomic science. Of textbooks, special mention may be made of the thorough revision of the Stöhr-Lewis Textbook of Histology (Blakiston) by F. T. Lewis. In this revision special consideration was given to histogenesis and the embryonic interpretation of adult structures. mesoderm and vessels, they enter the Cytology. In a series of investigations on the intra vitam action of benzidine dyes by H. M. Evans and associates (summarized in Science, 1914) it is shown that two types of cells respond readily to vital staining, (1) clasmatocytes of the con- Growth and Development.-Stocknective tissue, and (2) endothelial ard (Anat. Rec., viii) reports on decells of the liver, spleen, bone mar- fects in development in response to row, and lymph glands. Less readily treatment of ova with chemical substained were the fixed connective tis- stances. Hen's eggs, treated prior to sue cells and mesothelial cells. Em- incubation with fumes of alcohol and mel (Am. Jour. Anat., xvi) reports ether, were especially studied with an investigation on red blood cells in reference to developmental changes. pig embryos ranging in length from The general conclusion is reached that 3 mm. to about 40 mm. In auto- the effect of chemical substances is plastic cultures it was observed that not specific, certain specific responses being obtained by a variety of chem- the development of the intestine with ical substances. Gudernatsch (Am. a view of determining at what period Jour. Anat., xv) reports a long series in its development variations from of experiments on the feeding of thy- the norm are most likely to appear. roid and thymus gland substance to He finds that the critical period is tadpoles. It was found that the thy- that which immediately precedes and roid substance has the power to ex- accompanies the return of the umbilcite differentiation irrespective of the ical loop to the abdominal cavity, size of the tadpole but lacks the when the embryo is growing from 20 power to cause growth, while thymus mm. to 50 mm. in length. Kingsbury substance has the power to stimulate (ibid.) reports on an investigation of growth but lacks the power of excit- the interstitial cells of the maming differentiation. Hatai (ibid., xvi) malian ovary. The study is confined found that the growth curve of the to the ovary of the cat, including thymus gland in the albino rat is cor- late-foetal to old-age stages. He conrelated with age rather than with cludes that the interstitial cells are body weight. Scott (Anat. Rec., viii) modified stroma cells. No evidence finds that there is no decrease in the was found to support the view that percentage of water in the brain of the they constitute morphologically an smooth dogfish with increasing age. intraovarian gland having an interKearney (ibid.) as a result of inves-nal secretion. F. P. Johnson (ibid.) tigation of the relative growth of the contributes the third of a series of organs of the dogfish finds that their relative growth is very similar to that which has been observed among higher vertebrates, including mammals and man. Chichester (ibid.) adds a number of cases of cyclopia in mammalia. In his study, special attention is given to abnormalities observed in the nervous system in such malformations. Macklin (Am. Jour. Anat., xvi) reports on a very careful study of the skull of a 40-mm. human embryo in which use of the Born wax-plate method was made. Studies of this nature are of interest in determining the philogeny of the human skull. The chondro-cranium is presented in excellent figures made from reconstructions. Several new cartilaginous anlagen are described and discussed in their relation to other parts. papers on the development of the mucosa of the digestive tract, considering in this the development of the rectum. Numerous reconstructions were made. Corner (ibid.) reports on the development of the structural unit of the pig's pancreas; a structural unit being defined as the smallest portion of an organ which is repeated in a similar way throughout and contains all the elemental structures of the organ. The duct system was found to differentiate from a primitive plexus of capillary ducts. Some 20,000 to 30,000 structural units are differentiated. Blood and Lymph Vascular Systems.-The important question of the development of the blood-vascular and lymphatic systems has been considered in a number of monographic contributions in which two schools hold Internal Organs.-Bensley (Anat.ing divergent views have contributed. Rec., viii) reports on an investigation Florence R. Sabin (Johns Hopkins of the thyroid of the opossum, de- Hosp. Reports, Monographs, N. S., v; scribing a new type of cell with new and Ergebn. Anat., xxi), who has consecretory products, furnishing objec- tributed largely to the view that the tive evidence of the polyvalency of vertebrate lymphatic system is a dithyroid secretion. Wulzen (ibid.) de- rect derivative of the embryonic venscribes a more or less definite cone- ous system, the centrifugal theory of shaped structure found in connection lymphatic development and the speciwith the pars intermedia of the hypo- ficity of the endothelium, presents a physis of the ox, resembling in struc- very complete and critical review of ture the pars glandularis and possess the literature bearing on the subing numerous acidophile cells, how- ject, and summarizes and brings to ever, having smaller alveoli and finer date her own contributions in this connective tissue septa. Bardeen field. Huntington (Am. Jour. Anat., (Amer. Jour. Anat., xvi) has studied xvi), who has contributed largely to the centripetal theory of lymphatic | differentiates into arteries and veins. development, according to which lym- Weed and Wegefarth (Jour. Med. Rephatic vessels are formed as a result search, xxxi) have contributed the reof successive fusion of intercellular sults of an extensive investigation on mesenchymal spaces, presents new the formation and absorption of the evidence in support of his view. A cerebrospinal fluid and the aqueous hæmophoric stage is recognized, in humor of the eye. Evidence seems which newly developed blood cells conclusive that the cerebrospinal which arise in situ in the mesenchy- fluid is secreted by cells of the choroid mal syncytium are conveyed by lym- plexus, reaches the subarachnoid phatics to the embryonic venous sys- space and is absorbed through the tem. Schulte (Memoirs of the Wis- agency of arachnoidal villi, structures tar Institute, No. 3) considers espe- which the investigation has brought cially vasculogenesis. The question of to light. Kramer and Todd (Anat. the specificity of the angioblast and Rec., viii) have studied the distribuendothelium is considered at length tion of the nerves to the arteries of and the general conclusion reached the upper extremity and have found that endothelium is not a specific tis-that the subclavian and axillary arsue, but may develop from mesen- teries receive nerve supply direct chyme, and may again revert to mes- from the sympathetic chain, all other enchyme. His own contribution deals arm arteries indirectly through the with the early formation of the blood spinal nerves. A. W. Meyer (Am. vessels in the cat and especially the Jour. Anat., xvi), in an extensive umbilical vein. This he contends is study of the retrogressive changes in formed directly from the mesenchyme the foetal vessels and suspensory ligaas a result of concrescence of discrete ment of the liver, finds that these are spaces. Bremer (Am. Jour. Anat., foetal structures and degenerate early xvi) has contributed to our knowl in life. Schaeffer (Jour. Exp. Med., edge of the earliest blood vessels in xix) has presented results of a study man. From a study of very young on the behavior of elastic tissue in human embryos of the Harvard and post-fœtal occlusion and obliteration other collections, he has discovered of the ductus arteriosus, finding that that the earliest blood vessels arise the elastic fibers, which are an imporseparately, and by many anlagen in tant factor in the occlusion of the the yolk sac and body stalk. The an- lumen of the duct, are formed by lagen in the body stalk arise as fun- delamination from the hypertrophied nel-shaped ingrowths of the meso- internal elastic membrane. Jordan thelium which become in part de- (Anat. Rec., viii) from a study of tached. From these mesothelial in- heart muscle by dissociation methods growths, by extension and delamina- reaches the conclusion that there is tion angioblast cords and endothelium no evidence in favor of the cellular are formed. Miller and McWhorter conception of heart muscle, which (Anat. Rec., viii) report on experi- appears to be a true syncytium. ments on blood-vessel development in the blastoderm of chick embryos. By removing on one side the area opaqua, at the head-process stage, and observing further development, it was found that blood-vessel anlagen developed in situ in the area pellucida and embryo on the operated side. Hopkins (ibid.) has studied by means of injection methods the development of the blood vessels of the spinal cord. He finds that the earliest vessels arise from segmental spinal branches, and that the dorsal rami of the primitive arterial tract and other capillaries enter the cord and form an undifferentiated capillary plexus which later Nervous System.-Weed (Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Publ. No. 191) presents the results of extended studies of the nuclear masses of the lower portion of the human brain stem. The nuclear masses of this region were reproduced in plastic form by the plate method of reconstruction. In the model thus obtained, the form and relations of the various nuclear masses are clearly portrayed. In the figures of the model, which accompany this monograph, the various nuclear masses are clearly brought to view by use of distinctive colors. These figures will be of great service to other investigators in interpreting |