is expected that the 40 industrial | comprises the results of an inquiry schools recently established in the into the salaries of teachers and prostate will draw their special teachers fessors which was instituted by the from this source. National Education Association and accomplished under the direction of an expert official of the Bureau. The information is in statistical form without note or comment, but will enable states and individual communities to discover their exact status in the salary scale. Wide variation in the pay for the same or similar work is one of the most striking situations revealed by the investigation. Public elementary school teachers may receive $2,400 a year, as some do in New York City, or $45 a year, as in certain rural com Summer Schools. In addition to the preliminary preparation for teaching there is a great demand on the part of teachers themselves for the means of extending their knowledge and professional efficiency; this demand is largely met by summer schools, including summer sessions of universities, colleges and normal schools as well as the more restricted summer institutes. The number of summer schools held in 1913 was 673, and the number of students 181,288 (62,625 men, 118,663 women). They employed 11,722 instructors and 1,910 lecturers. munities. Even in cities of the same The average length of the sessions was 7.2 weeks; only 20 schools reported sessions of less than four weeks. Of the entire number of schools 43 were maintained by universities, 48 by colleges and 85 by normal schools. University Training. A university degree is required not only for professors of education in the universities, but also, as a rule, for teachers in high schools, at least in the cities; hence there is a large enrollment in the university departments of education The number of degrees in education conferred in 1913 was 1,044, of which 224 were for men and 820 for women. A very large proportion of the degrees in philosophy are also obtained by students intending to teach or already engaged in that work. class there are considerable differences in the salaries. On the administrative side there are county superintendents with pay ranging from $115 to $4,000 per annum, and college presidents receiving salaries all the way from $900 to $12,400. In city school systems salaries have increased steadily in recent years, particularly in the western states. The average salary of the superintendent of schools in cities of over 250,000 population is $7,178; the range is from $4,000 to $10,000. In the same group of cities high-school principals average $3,565 and elementary teachers $1,018. Even in the smallest cities listed, those between 5,000 and 10,000 population, salaries are fairly uniform. The maximum for superintendents in this group is $3,600 and the average $1,915; elementary teachers show an annual average of $533, with salaries as high as $1,350 and as low as $104. Salaries. The problem of the supply of competent teachers for the public schools received new emphasis during the year by the publication of a The city of Cincinnati in 1914 bulletin of the Federal Bureau of Ed-placed women on an exact equality ucation under the title "The Tangible with men in all capacities and Rewards of Teaching." This work branches of the public-school service. HIGHER EDUCATION Institutions. The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1913 contains tabulated particulars of 596 universities, colleges and technical schools, which have two common characteristics they require for admission proof that the candidate has finished a preparatory course equivalent, at least, to that of a public high school; they are also authorized by law to confer scholastic degrees. The number of instructors and students in the institutions classified as higher during the scholastic year 1913-14 is given by the following table, which indicates also the scope of these institutions in preparatory, collegiate and professional education: Collegiate (undergraduates). The preparatory departments com- be disregarded. The students in the prised in the table belong to second-departments pertaining to higher edary education, and since, as a rule, ucation are classified as follows: they have their own instructors, they do not lessen the college forces. In the case of Roman Catholic colleges, the scheme of education is intended to include the preparatory stage, the college province being, however, distinctly defined. In the present sur-erty values and incomes of the highvey the preparatory departments will er institutions as far as reported: Total... 190,147 38,185 12,084 36,869 277,285 The table following shows the prop Dormitories Including United States.. $64,204,619 $87,557,158 $260,353,851 $350,038,287 $93,545,381 $109,590,855 No. Atlantic No. Central.. So. Atlantic. 21,929,248 29,580,681 98,460,645 171,781,504 6,010,532 The range of tuition fees is wide. | State universities, as a rule, are free to citizens of their respective states, but there is an annual charge for library, laboratory, etc., the lowest reported being $10. The highest annual tuition fee reported is $250, but in all there are only seven institutions in which the annual fee exceeds $150. The advantages of free tuition in state universities are partially offset in others by scholarship funds. Of the total of 13,282 scholarships reported, 4,711, or more than one-third, representing a value of $618,163, belong to 17 private institutions. The Undergraduates. As regards numbers the undergraduates represent the great function of higher institutions in the United States; the registration here comprising 190,147 students, which is 75 per cent. of the 10,558,873 student body, or 89 per cent. if the professional departments are omitted. With few exceptions the questions of chief current discussion in respect to higher education relate to the welfare of undergraduates. Many of these questions are perennial but with varying emphasis. The value of small colleges was in the foreground three years ago; the question of fraternities and athletics was hotly discussed in 1913; coeducation shows an interesting curve of ascent and descent; at present standards and bases of classification divide attention with tests of efficiency. As compared with the stable condition of foreign systems, higher education in the United States seems, therefore, to be in a state of flux, although, in fact, radical changes take place slowly and are apparent only in the survey of periods. Diversity of Degrees. In the rec-state university; the education de partment of Wisconsin recognizes normal schools as junior colleges; in Virginia several colleges for women have the same rank; in California and some other states the high-school course has been extended from four to six years, the last two years of the course offering practically junior college work and preparing students for admission to state universities. The legal recognition of junior colleges makes it necessary that their scope should be defined, and in sev ord of undergraduate departments two conditions are noticeable, the variety of courses offered, and the variety of degrees to which they lead. To the old distinction of classical and scientific there is now added technical, and this comprises no less than 15 subdivisions, each leading to its special diploma. At the graduating exercises in 1913 thirty-six varieties of bachelor's degrees were conferred in colleges for men and for both sexes, to which the colleges for women made two additions. Several of the numeral states committees have been apber were simply different signs for the same thing; others were the signs of electives introducing slight variations in group studies. In one or two institutions the master's degree takes the place of the bachelor's degree and there are seven forms of first degrees in engineering which omit the sign for bachelor. Coeducation as a vital problem affects individual colleges at times. The general policy in this respect is indicated by the following particulars. The colleges for men only number 145 with 37,503 undergraduates; the colleges for women only, 105, with 18,896 students; coeducation colleges, 346, with 82,877 men in their undergraduate departments and 50,871 women. In other words, of all the men students 68.8 per cent. are in mixed colleges, and of all women students, 80 per cent. Junior and Senior Colleges. Of the 596 higher institutions reported, 291, or very nearly one-half, confine themselves to undergraduate work; that is, they have no graduate students and no professional departments. There is a decided tendency throughout the country toward a limitation of scope according to the resources or the clientèle of an institution. This tendency is taking two directions, one that of concentration on a very strong but well balanced undergraduate course or on a very strong specialized technical course, the other a limit in duration of this course. The latter tendency has gained great impetus during the year and already in several states junior and senior colleges have legal recognition. Missouri has seven of the former class whose graduates are admitted to the junior class of the pointed for this purpose, in the interests of education departments, associations, etc. The Association of Southern Colleges and Secondary Schools at its annual meeting of 1914 adopted the report of a committee appointed the preceding year to advise in the matter. While some of the recommendations were opposed, the opinion was unanimous that the entrance requirements should be the same for junior and senior colleges. College Entrance Requirements.These various measures all pertain to the general movement for shortening the period between the elementary school and specialized university study and unifying college standards. The greatest interstate or sectional organization engaged in this effort is the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in which 16 states are represented. Heretofore the activities of the association have been directed mainly to the relations of secondary schools with colleges, and in this province, as stated by a well-known authority, although its decisions are understood to potent factor in elevating secondary education through its commission on accredited schools and its published list of such schools. . . . Only those universities, colleges or junior colleges are eligible for membership which require work, and no secondary school is elifor admission 15 units of secondary gible' which does not provide these 15 units. be advisory only, it has been a very Since 1910 this requirement has been extended so that "after April 1, 1912, no college or university shall be eligible to membership which is not on the list of accredited colleges of the association." It was not until | as schools of agriculture or combining March, 1913, that the preliminary in- this subject with mechanic arts. The vestigation was completed which es- remaining land-grant colleges are detablished a list of 73 institutions partments of universities. meeting the requirements, two of the number being junior colleges. The movement for raising college entrance requirements is offset by a tendency toward greater flexibility in respect to the requirements and the means of testing candidates. This is indicated by recent discussions of the subject in the reports of the chief institutions that admit undergraduates upon examination only, by measures adopted at Yale for simplifying the method of its examinations, and by the decision of Stevens Institute to accept students on certificates beginning with 1914. Courses of Study. The undergraduate department or college proper is not only of great importance in itself but in its relation to higher departments. The latter relation is mainly the cause of the acute controversy over standards which was excited by the rulings of the Carnegie Foundation and has been intensified by other attempts to evaluate the work of different colleges and different courses of study. Special interest attaches, also, to the relative demand for different courses of undergraduate study. The only clue we have to this relation is the number of degrees conferred in the different orders of undergraduate study. The showing for 1913, first degrees alone, is as follows: Degree Men Women Total B. A. and equivalents... 8,379 7,460 15,839 B. Ed. or B. Ped. B. Ph . B. Agri. B. H. Econ. B. Com. Sci. B. Mus.. 848 198 Of the total number of higher institutions 94 are controlled by states or municipalities, and 502 by private corporations. The former in 1913 registered 79,579 students in their undergraduate and graduate departments, the latter, 122,652. In the record of the public institutions two facts are impressive, the liberal appropriations for their support and the increasing exercise of state authority in their affairs. The current report of the Bureau of Education says: In each of three states the biennial appropriation made by the legislature of 1913 for the support of the state universities passed $3,000,000, and in the case of the University of Illinois the appropriation from the fund created by the mill tax and exclusive of revenue from Federal land grants, student fees, etc., reached the astonishing total of $4,500,000 for maintenance, improvements, and land purchases. The total biennial appropriation for the University of Wisconsin was $4,130,440; for the University of California approximately $3,900,000. In the last two cases the appropriations were from current state revenues, and by no means indicate the total revenue of the institutions men tioned. Among the evidences of the increasing exercise of state authority in this field is the establishment of a central board for the supervision of the sev eral higher institutions in a given state. Such action in Montana was 1,046 preliminary to the union of the Col1,023 lege of Agriculture, the School of 438 Mines, and the State Normal School, which, in accordance with a legisla166 tive act of 1913, now constitute the University of Montana. In Idaho a state board has been created to administer the entire system of education including the university. 209 Technical degrees, conferred on men only, were as follows: Civil Eng., 932; Mech. Eng., 725; Elec. Eng., 306; Min. Eng., 348; B. Chem., 198; B. Arch., 83. Variations in Function and Control. -The classified degrees suggest a difference in functions on the part of the institutions themselves. Eighteen are technical schools and above 20 are land-grant colleges either specialized There is also a noticeable disposition on the part of several states to extend public aid to private institutions with reserve of the right to inspect the institutions aided. New York affords the most striking example of this policy. It is illustrated also by the unusual combination of private benevolence with state and Between 1892 and 1906 12 institutions municipal appropriations for the organized extension teaching, mainly George Peabody College for Teachers in agriculture, and since 1906 28 uniat Nashville, Tenn. versities and colleges have introduced Graduate Departments.-Graduate the work, while 21 others have reorand professional departments mark ganized their extension work on a the university as distinguished from basis of separate divisions or departthe college, and the strength of these ments. (See also XVII, Agriculture.) departments depends so largely upon their material resources that equipments and endowments have come to be regarded as the measure of possibilities in this higher field. Considering graduate departments only, it appears that of 12.084 students registered under this head in 1913, 63 per cent. were in 14 universities each having more than 200 graduate students. The combined endowment funds of the 14 institutions amounted to $148,513,732, which was 42 per cent. of the endowment funds reported from the entire number of higher institutions. Nine of the 14 had endowment funds exceeding $5,000,000, the range being from $5,000,000 to $29,348,000. These facts illustrate the steadily increasing movement of students toward great centers, either state universities or rich private foundations, which offer the fullest provision for advanced study and research. Broadening Curricula.-The interest in administrative problems of higher education obscures somewhat the rapid expansion of its curricula. At the present time this is marked by two opposite tendencies, one eminently practical, the other ideal: The former is illustrated by the provision for instruction in home economics, which has been raised to the scientific plane largely through the activities of the Department of Agriculture. The second tendency is marked by the lavish provision for instruction in dramatic art and in music, signally illustrated during the year by the completion of the fine building for the music department of Harvard University and the celebration of the close of the first half year of the school of dramatic art of the Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh. University Extension. - The predominant idea of service to the people is shown by the rapid growth of university extension activities. In 1891 28 states and territories reported university extension in some form. Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts.-The land-grant act of 1862 which created a distinct class of colleges assumes new importance with every passing year. The equipment of the colleges for practical work has been greatly extended by the appropriations for the experiment stations; upon the latter, as already shown, new appropriations have been lavished during the year. There are now 68 institutions sharing in this government bounty, 52 for white students and 16 for colored. Of the former, 28 are distinctively colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts; one, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is practically a specialized university; 23 are departments of universities. The extent to which the Federal Government and the states coöperate for the support of these institutions is shown by the following statement of the sources and amount of income at the beginning and close of the last half decade: |