constituted all the means of defense. Articles of capitulation were immediately concluded.

In 1777 Austrian troops numbering many thousands entered lower Bavaria and seized every important place, no declaration of war having been previously declared.

On February 6, 1778, France signed secretly a treaty with Franklin, engaging to give assistance to the American colonies. France did not then declare war upon England.

In 1779 Spain joined France in a war against England.

On April 21, 1784, Austria sent a detachment of troops into Dutch territories and took possession of Fort Lillo.

On December 20, 1787, before the declaration of war was issued, Austria sent six regiments into Turkey for the purpose of surprising the Turkish fortress Belgrade. Declaration of war was not declared until July 10, 1788.

In July, 1789, a Spanish frigate of twenty-six guns captured two English vessels and seized a settlement.

On April 20, 1792, France declared war against the Empire of Germany.

On September 28, 1792, the French Republic surprised Nice, Montalbon, and Ville Franche, in the Kingdom of Sardinia, during peace.

In the same year, without declaration of war, the French Republic ordered invasion of neutral Switzerland.

On July 1, 1793, France declared war upon England, Spain, and the Netherlands.

In 1795 England seized Dutch colonies, capturing the island of Ceylon without fighting, no declaration of war having previously been made.

In 1796 the French Republican army, without declaration of war, seized forts and territories of the States of the Church, Naples, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, etc.

On January 28, 1798, France suddenly invaded Switzerland. Naples moved against France, and France took possession of Navarra, Suza, and Coni. No declaration of war was made in any instance.

On September 5, 1800, Russia seized two British ships in Russian ports and sent their crews prisoners into the interior without declaration of war.

On July 14, 1801, reprisals were ordered by the English Cabinet. All Swedish, Danish, and Russian vessels in English ports were seized and a large English fleet under Sir Hyde Parker was dispatched to the Baltic, although there was no declaration of war.

On March 20 the Swedish inland steamer Bartholomew, wholly unprepared for any defense, surrendered at the first summons to a force of three regiments of foot and a detachment of artillery under LieutenantGeneral Trigge and a squadron under Rear-Admiral Duckworth.

In 1802 Napoleon sent a force of 20,000 men into friendly Switzerland and seized by surprises Soleure, Zurich, and Berne.

On November 23, 1806, the Russian army, during negotiation and after full concessions, suddenly invaded Moldavia and seized Chotsim, Bender, and Jassi.

In 1806 England sent an expedition against Curaçao; her fleet suddenly entered the harbor, and Fort Amsterdam was assaulted and captured.

On March 6, 1807, England sent an expedition, during negotiations, into Egypt, and on the 21st of March the governor of Alexandria accepted terms of capitulation.

The

In 1807 the English man-of-war Leopard, fifty-two guns, demanded of the Chesapeake, an American frigate cruising off Virginia, the requisition of some English deserters on board the Chesapeake. American captain denied the right of search, whereupon the Leopard fired a broadside, killing and wounding several Americans in time of peace.

In 1812 Napoleon, by sudden attack on troops of Kowno, declared war with Russia.

On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain. During the month of April previous, however, a general embargo was laid by Congress upon all vessels in the harbors of the United States for seventy days.

In 1815 Murat, King of Naples, attacked Austria without notice.

In 1816 Portugal invaded the Spanish possessions on the River Plate without explanation or previous declaration.

In 1818 the United States, during peace with Spain, seized Pensacola and St. Marks.

In 1821 the United States seized a French ship during time of peace. In 1826 the King of Spain carried on hostilities against Portugal with willful falsehood without declaring war, but professing friendship. During the same year England, without declaration of war on Spain, dispatched troops to fight the Spaniards.

In 1827 the Turkish fleet was destroyed by Russia, England, and France without warning of war.

In 1828 the Russo-Turkish war occurred. Hostilities on both sides preceded declaration of war.

In the same year France sent an expedition against the Turks in Greece and captured five fortresses.

In 1831, without declaration of war, Russia fired into, sank, and captured Greek ships and joined in a formal attack upon Poros.

During this same year a French admiral carried off the whole Portuguese fleet and converted reprisals into war. And the King of Holland pressed his troops into Belgium and in nine days crushed the Belgian forces.

On February 22, 1832, France sent a squadron with troops and captured Ancona by sudden surprise during absolute peace between France and Rome.

In 1834 the Spanish army, without notice, crossed the Portuguese frontier and, by a forced march, surprised and defeated the force under Don Carlos.

In 1835 the inhabitants of Texas raised the standard of revolt against the Mexican Government, and declared themselves independent.

During the year 1838, an invasion of Canada took place under circumstances described in the United States Congress as such "that the people were at war while their Governments were at peace."

On the 17th of April, 1840, the British ships of war in the vicinity of Naples commenced hostilities and captured a number of Neapolitan vessels, and an embargo was laid on all ports of Malta that bore the Sicilian flag.

In 1844 hostilities by France against Morocco commenced by Prince de Joinville on not receiving a satisfactory answer to an ultimatum.

On May 13, 1846, the Congress of the United States passed a resolution that, by virtue of the constitutional authority vested in them, declared that a state of war existed between the Republic of Mexico and the United States. The President in his message recited many and various acts of hostilities prior to any declaration of war.

In 1847 a revolutionary junta had been established in Portugal and was carrying on a war against the Queen. The war having dragged on for some time, England, France, and Spain agreed to interfere, but no declaration of war was made.

In 1848 the Italian insurrectionary war broke out; the King of Piedmont at once joined his armies to those of the Italians, and the war, from its nature, was carried on without any formal notice.

On April 25, 1849, the French General Oudinot entered citadel Civita Vecchia. The Roman Assembly protested in the name of God and the people against this unexpected invasion. A short time after there followed the siege and capture of Rome.

In 1850 and 1851 the United States waged the unofficial war against Cuba.

In 1853 and 1854 the Crimean war was waged. Hostilities preceded war as follows: The Russian Government seized the Danubian principalities.

On May 31 the order for the passage of the Pruth was passed.

On June 2, before it was known in London, orders were sent to English and French admirals to move up the Besike Bay.

On October 22 the English and French fleet, under orders from London and Paris, entered the Dardanelles in express breach of treaty of 1841.

On October 23 Turkey declared war upon Russia and crossed the Danube to expel the Russians.

In 1859 France and Italy against Austria. The Austrian Government alleged that the actual commencement of this war was on both sides (as between France and Austria) declared to be due to prior hostile acts, not words.

On May 5, 1860, Garibaldi sailed from Genoa with 2,000 troops to wrest Sicily from the King of Naples.

In 1863 war between Austria and Prussia on one side and Denmark on the other virtually commenced by the occupation of Holstein and Lauenburg by the troops of the two great powers.

In 1870 the war between France and Germany. The declaration of war clearly preceded war.

THE AMELIORATION OF THE RULES OF WAR ON LAND

With a view to the systematic discussion of the questions inscribed upon its program, the membership of the conference was divided into four great committees, to each of which a related group of subjects was assigned for investigation with a view to the formulation of such stipulations as might be deemed worthy of insertion in a general convention. The second of these committees was charged with the investigation of all questions having to do with the operations of war on land. While it was assumed that the Second Committee would address itself to the amelioration of the existing rules and usages of war, as embodied in the convention framed by the First Peace Conference, it was also expected that considerable time would be devoted to the serious consideration of questions which, though they were not touched by the First Conference, were now believed to be ripe for conventional regulation. To that end the following subjects were formally assigned to the Second Committee at the second plenary session of the conference: The modification and amelioration of the rules of war on land; b. The opening of hostilities;

a.

d. The rights and duties of neutrals on land.

At the same session the following officers were chosen by accla