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CHAP. XI.

OF THE REMEDIES OF THE FOREGOING IMPERFECTIONS

AND ABUSES.

§ 1. They are worth seeking.—The natural and improved imperfections of languages, we have seen above at large; and speech being the great bond that holds society together, and the common conduit, whereby the improvements of knowledge are conveyed from one man, and one generation, to another, it would well deserve our most serious thoughts, to consider what remedies are to be found for these inconveniences above-mentioned.

§ 2. Are not easy.-I am not so vain to think, that any one can pretend to attempt the perfect reforming the languages of the world, no, not so much as of his own country, without rendering himself ridiculous. To require that men should use their words constantly in the same sense, and for none but determined and uniform ideas, would be to think, that all men should have the same notions, and should talk of nothing but what they have clear and distinct ideas of. Which is not to be expected by any one, who hath not vanity enough to imagine he can prevail with men to be very knowing or very silent. And he must be very little skilled in the world, who thinks that a voluble tongue shall accompany only a good understanding; or that men's talking much or little, shall hold proportion only to their knowledge.

§3. But yet necessary to philosophy.-But though the market and exchange must be left to their own ways of talking, and gossippings not to be robbed of their ancient privilege; though the schools, and men of argument, would, perhaps, take it amiss to have any thing offered, to abate the length, or lessen the number, of their disputes; yet, methinks, those who pretend seriously to search after or maintain truth, should think themselves obliged to study how they might deliver themselves without obscurity, doubtfulness, or equivocation, to which men's words are naturally liable, if care be not taken.

§4. Misuse of words, the great cause of errors.-For he that shall well consider the errors and obscurity, the mistakes and confusion, that are spread in the world by an ill use of words, will find some reason to doubt, whether language, as it has been employed, has contributed more to the improvement or hindrance of knowledge amongst mankind. How many are there, that when they would think on things, fix their thoughts only on words, especially when they would apply their minds to moral matters; and who then can wonder, if the result of such contemplations and reasonings, about little more than sounds, whilst the ideas they annexed to them are very confused, or very unsteady, or, perhaps, none at all; who can wonder, I say, that such thoughts and reasonings end in nothing but obscurity and mistake, without any clear judgment or knowledge?

$5. Obstinacy-This inconvenience, in all ill use of words, men suffer in their own private meditations; but much more manifest are the disorders which follow from it, in conversation, discourse, and

arguings with others. For language being the great conduit whereby men convey their discoveries, reasonings, and knowledge, from one to another, he that makes an ill use of it, though he does not corrupt the fountains of knowledge, which are in things themselves, yet he does, as much as in him lies, break or stop the pipes whereby it is distributed to the public use and advantage of mankind. He that uses words without any clear and steady meaning, what does he but lead himself and others into errors! And he that designedly does it, ought to be looked on as an enemy to truth and knowledge. And yet who can wonder, that all the sciences and parts of knowledge, have been so overcharged with obscure and equivocal terms, and insignificant and doubtful expressions, capable to make the most attentive or quick-sighted very little, or not at all, the more knowing or orthodox; since subtilty in those who make profession to teach or defend truth, hath passed so much for a virtue. A virtue, indeed, which consisting, for the most part, in nothing but the fallacious and illusory use of obscure and deceitful termis, is only fit to make men more conceited in their ignorance, and obstinate in their errors.

$6. And wrangling.-Let us look into the books of controversy of any kind, there we shall see, that the effect of obscure, unsteady, or equivocal terms, is nothing but noise and wrangling about sounds, without convincing or bettering a man's understanding. For if the idea be not agreed on, betwixt the speaker and hearer, for which the words stand, the argument is not about things, but names. As often as such a word, whose signification is not ascertained betwixt them, comes in use, their understandings have no other object wherein they agree, but barely the sound, the things that they think on at that time, as expressed by that word, being quite different.

7. Instance, bat and bird.-Whether a bat be a bird, or no, is not a question; whether a bat be another thing than indeed it is, or have other qualities than indeed it has, for that would be extremely absurd to doubt of; but the question is, 1. Either between those that acknowledged themselves to have but imperfect ideas of one or both of those sorts of things, for which these names are supposed to stand; and then it is real inquiry concerning the nature of a bird, or a bat, to make their yet imperfect ideas of it more complete, by examining, whether all the simple ideas, to which, combined together, they both give the name bird, be all to be found in a bat; but this is a question only of inquirers (not disputers), who neither affirm, nor deny, but examine; or, 2. It is a question between disputants, whereof the one affirms, and the other denies, that a bat is a bird. And then the question is barely about the signification of one, or both these words; in that they not having both the same complex ideas, to which they give these two names; one holds, and the other denies, that these two names may be affirmed one of another. Were they agreed in the signification of these two names, it were impossible they should dispute about them. For they would presently, and clearly, see (were that adjusted between them), whether all the simple ideas of the more general name bird, were found in the complex ideas of a bat, or no; and so there could be no doubt, whether a bat were a bird, or no. And here I desire it may be considered, and

carefully examined, whether the greatest part of the disputes in the world, are not merely verbal, and about the signification of words; and whether, if the terms they are made in, were defined and reduced in their signification (as they must be, where they signify any thing) to determine collections of the simple ideas they do, or should, stand for, those disputes would not end of themselves, and immediately vanish. İ leave it then to be considered, what the learning of disputation is, and how well they are employed for the advantage of themselves, or others, whose business is only the vain ostentation of sounds, i. e. those who spend their lives in disputes and controversies. When I shall see any of those combatants strip all his terms of ambiguity and obscurity (which every one may do in the words he uses himself), I shall think him a champion for knowledge, truth, and peace, and not the slave of vainglory, ambition, or a party.

§ 8. First, remedy to use no word without an idea.-To remedy the defects of speech before-mentioned, to some degree, and to prevent the inconveniencies that follow from them, I imagine the observation of these following rules may be of use, till somebody better able shall judge it worth his while, to think more maturely on this matter, and oblige the world with his thoughts on it.

First, A man should take care to use no word without a signification, no name without an idea for which he makes it stand. This rule will not seem altogether needless, to any one who shall take the pains to recollect how often he has met with such words as instinct, sympathy, antipathy, &c. in the discourse of others, so made use of, as he might easily conclude, that those that used them, had no ideas in their mind to which they applied them; but spoke them only as sounds, which usually served instead of reasons, on the like occasions. Not but that these words, and the like, have very proper significations in which they may be used; but there being no natural connexion between any words, and any ideas, these, and any other, may be learned by rote, and pronounced or writ by men who have no ideas in their minds, to which they have annexed them, and for which they make them stand; which is necessary they should, if men would speak intelligibly even to themselves alone.

§ 9. Secondly, to have distinct ideas annexed to them in modes.Secondly, It is not enough a man uses his words as signs of some ideas; those he annexed them to, if they be simple, must be clear and distinct; if complex, must be determinate, i. e. the precise collection of simple ideas settled in the mind, with that sound annexed to it, as the sign of that precise determined collection, and no other. This is very necessary in names of modes, and especially moral words, which having no settled objects in nature, from whence their ideas are taken, as from their original, are apt to be very confused. Justice is a word in every man's mouth, but most commonly with a very undetermined loose signification: which will always be so, unless a man has in his mind tinct comprehension of the component parts that complex idea consists of; and if it be decompounded, must be able to resolve it still on, till he at last comes to the simple ideas that make it up; and unless this be done, a man makes an ill use of the word; let it be justice, for ex

dis

ample, or any other. I do not say, a man need stand to recollect, and make this analysis at large, every time the word justice comes in his way; but this, at least, is necessary, that he have so examined the signification of that name, and settled the idea of all its parts in his mind, that he can do it when he pleases. If one who makes this complex idea of justice to be such a treatment of the person or goods of another, as is according to law, hath not a clear and distinct idea what law is, which makes a part of his complex idea of justice, it is plain, his idea of justice itself will be confused and imperfect. This exactness will, perhaps, be judged very troublesome; and therefore most men will think they may be excused from settling the complex ideas of mixed modes so precisely in their minds. But yet I must say, till this be done, it must not be wondered, that they have a great deal of obscurity and confusion in their own minds, and a great deal of wrangling in their discourses with others.

§ 10. Distinct and conformable in substances. In the names of substances, for a right use of them, something more is required than barely determined ideas; in these, the names must also be conformable to things, as they exist; but of this, I shall have occasion to speak more at large by-and-by. This exactness is absolutely necessary in inquiries after philosophical knowledge, and in controversies about truth. And though it would be well, too, if it extended itself to common conversation, and the ordinary affairs of life; yet I think that is scarce to be expected. Vulgar notions suit vulgar discourses: and both, though confused enough, yet serve pretty well the market, and the wake. Merchants and lovers, cooks and tailors, have words wherewithal to dispatch their ordinary affairs; and so, I think, might philosophers and disputants too, if they had a mind to understand, and to be clearly understood.

§ 11. Thirdly, propriety.-Thirdly, It is not enough that men have ideas, determined ideas, for which they make these signs stand; but they must also take care to apply their words as near as may be, to such ideas as common use has annexed them to. For words, especially of languages already framed, being no man's private possession, but the common measure of commerce and communication, it is not for any one, at pleasure, to change the stamp they are current in; nor alter the ideas they are fixed to; or at least, when there is a necessity so to do, he is bound to give notice of it. Men's intentions in speaking are, or at least should be, understood; which cannot be without frequent explanations, demands, and other the like incommodious interruptions, where men do not follow common use. Propriety of speech, is that which gives our thoughts entrance into other men's minds with the greatest ease and advantage; and therefore deserves some part of our care and study, especially in the names of moral words. The proper signification and use of terms, is best to be learned from those, who in their writings and discourses, appear to have had the clearest notions, and applied to them their terms with the exactest choice and fitness. This way of using a man's words, according to the propriety of language, though it have not always the good fortune to be understood; yet most commonly leaves the blame of it on him, who is so unskilful

in the language he speaks, as not to understand it, when made use of as it ought to be.

§ 12. Fourthly, to make known their meaning.-Fourthly, But because common use has not so visibly annexed any signification to words as to make men know always certainly what they precisely stand for; and because men, in the improvement of their knowledge, come to have ideas different from the vulgar and ordinary received ones, for which they must either make new words (which men seldom venture to do, for fear of being thought guilty of affectation, or novelty), or else must use old ones, in a new signification. Therefore, after the observation of the foregoing rules, it is sometimes necessary for the ascertaining the signification of words, to declare their meaning; where either common use has left it uncertain and loose (as it has in most names of very complex ideas) or where the term being very material in the discourse, and that upon which it chiefly turns, is liable to any doubtfulness or mistake.

§ 13. And that three ways.-As the ideas men's words stand for, are of different sorts; so the way of making known the ideas they stand for, when there is occasion, is also different. For though defining be thought the proper way to make known the proper signification of words; yet there are some words that will not be defined, as there are others, whose precise meaning cannot be made known, but by definition; and perhaps a third, which partakes somewhat of both the other, as we shall see in the names of simple ideas, modes, and substances.

§14. First, in simple ideas by synonymous terms, or shewing. First, When a man makes use of the name of any simple idea, which he perceives is not understood, or is in danger to be mistaken, he is obliged, by the laws of ingenuity, and the end of speech, to declare his meaning, and make known what idea he makes it stand for. This, as has been shewn, cannot be done by definition; and, therefore, when a synonymous word fails to do it, there is but one of these ways left. First, Sometimes the naming the subject, wherein that simple idea is to be found, will make its name to be understood by those who are acquainted with that subject, and know it by that name. So to make a countryman understand what fueille morte colour signifies, it may suffice to tell him, it is the colour of withered leaves falling in autumn. Secondly, But the only sure way of making known the signification of the name of any simple idea, is by presenting to his senses that subject, which may produce it in his mind, and make him actually have the idea that word stands for.

§ 15. Secondly, in mixed modes, by definition. Secondly, In mixed modes, especially those belonging to morality, being most of them such combinations of ideas as the mind puts together of its own choice; and whereof there are not always standing patterns to be found existing; the signification of their names cannot be made known, as those of simple ideas, by any shewing; but in recompense thereof, may be perfectly and exactly defined. For they being combinations of several ideas that the mind of man has arbitrarily put together, without reference to any archetypes, men may, if they please, exactly know the ideas that go to each composition, and so both use these words in a certain and

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