Both the first and the second tense of the subjunctive may denote present or future action, but the second (the imperfect) can also refer to the past; the third and the fourth mark past state or action.

974. I.—When the principal verb is in the present or future of the Indicative, the subordinate verb is put in the FIRST tense of the subjunctive:—

1. Il faut (964.) que celui qui parle se METTE à la portée de ceux qui l'écoutent (i. e. Celui qui parle DOIT se mettre à la portée, &c.) 2. Je ne croirai pas (955.) qu'il VIENNE ce soir (i. e. Il ne VIENDRA pas ce soir; je ne pourrai le croire même si vous le dites.)

975. II. The verb dependent upon the present or future of the Indicative is in the IMPERFECT of the subjunctive, when, in speaking of the past, it represents the action at the time it took place (927.):—

1. Je NE CROIS PAS qu'alors il eût raison sur ce point (i. e. Il AVAIT peut-être raison sur ce point, mais je ne le crois pas). 2. Je N'ASSURERAI PAS que ce prince vécûr à l'époque que vous citez (i.e. Ce prince VIVAIT peut-être à l'époque que vous citez, mais, &c.)

976. III.-After the present and the future of the Indicative, the past of the Subjunctive is used to express absolute past action, i. e. without any circumstance to mark when the action took place :

1. IL SUFFIT qu'un honnête homme n'AIT rien NÉGLIGÉ pour faire réussir une entreprise: le mauvais succès ne doit pas diminuer son mérite (i. e. Quand un honnête homme n'a rien NÉGLIGÉ pour, &c., cela suffit, &c.) 2. Je DOUTERAI toujours qu'il AIT FAIT tous ses efforts (.e. Il A FAIT tous ses efforts (c'est possible), mais j'en douterai toujours.)

977. IV. After the present and the future of the Indicative, the imperfect of the Subjunctive is used instead of the present, and the pluperfect instead of the past, when some conditional expression† is introduced into the sentence:

1. Je DOUTE

2.

Je DOUTERAI

(JE DOUTE

Je DOUTERAI

que vous ÉTUDIASSIEZ maintenant, demain, si l'on ne vous y contraignait.

que vous EUSSIEZ ÉTUDIÉ hier, &c., si l'on ne vous y avait contraint.

978. V.-After the imperfect, the past definite, the past indefinite, the past anterior, the pluperfect of the Indicative, the conditional present or past, the subordinate verb is in the imperfect or pluperfect of the Subjunctive. It is in the imperfect when it marks past or present time; in the pluperfect when it marks past time :

1. Les Romains ne VOULAIENT point de victoires qui coûTASSENT trop de sang.— (BOSSUET.); e., Quand les victoires CoûTAIENT (DEVAIENT coûter) trop de sang, les Romains n'en voulaient point. 2. Sparte était sobre AVANT QUE Socrate EÛT LOUÉ la sobriété. (J.-J. R.); i.e., Socrate n'AVAIT pas encore LOUÉ la sobriété, que dejà Sparte était sobre. 3. SERAIT-IL POSSIBLE que ce FÛT là ma récompense? ie, Ce SERAIT là ma récompense, serait-ce possible?

EXCEPTIONS TO RULE V., No. 978.

979. (a.) After the past indefinite, followed by afin que, de peur que, de crainte que, quoique, bien que, the subordinate verb must be put in the PRESENT of the Subjunctive to express a present or future state or action:

1. Il l'a trompé quoiqu'il sorr son frère:-i.e. Il EST son frère, et cependant il l'a trompé. 2. Je lui ai écrit afin qu'elle sort ici demain ;—¿. e. Elle SERA ici demain (c'est possible), car je lui ai écrit de venir.

The condition is generally expressed by the imperfect or pluperfect of the indicative with si, or by sans vous, sans lui, sans cela, sans votre aide, &c.

980. (b.) After the past indefinite, custom allows the use of the PAST instead of the imperfect of the Subjunctive:

A-t-on jamais vu un homme qui AIT MONTRÉ plus de courage?

981. (c.) The Conditionals of pouvoir and savoir (359.) are sometimes used for the present of the indicative; when this happens, they can be rendered by je ne puis (or je ne peux, 356.); they are then considered present tenses of the Indicative, and not of the Conditional, and therefore they require the PRESENT of the Subjunctive (974.):

Je ne saurais (358.) croire qu'ils VEUILLENT me tromper;-i. e. Je ne puis croire, &c.

TRADUCTION ET LECTURE XLV.

1. Je ne suis pas si pauvre que je ne puisse aujourd'hui vous offrir à dîner.—(A. MARTIN.) 2. C'étaient les deux seules habitations que nous eussions rencontrées.—(Chat.) 3. Je restai le seul que les victorieux épargnèrent, et qu'ils traitèrent (968.) honorablement. -(F.) 4. Si vous veniez et que (960.) vous voulussiez passer quelque temps avec nous, nous vous ferions connaître les beautés de ce pays. 5. Je ne pense pas que cette affaire eût réussi sans votre intervention. 6. Dieu a entouré les yeux de tuniques transparentes au devant, afin que l'on puisse voir à travers. 7. Il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose sans que j'en susse rien.-(M.) 8. Croyez-vous que les Limousins sont des sots et que les Parisiens sont des bêtes? 9. Il ne paiera pas qu'on (960.) ne l'y contraigne. 10. "Tout le monde a fait son devoir, sire!" répondit le chevalier de Fontanges, le plus chevaleresque et le plus aimable officier que j'aie connu. 11. Il reçut chez lui le vieillard avec la tendresse et le respect qu'il aurait témoignés à Alcine même, s'il eût étét encore vivant. 12. Comprenez ce que j'ai souffert : nul autre que moi n'eût pu† le souffrir.-(F.) 13. Les hommes parlent de la félicité, mais en est-il (312.) un qui ait jamais su en quoi elle consiste? 14. Le fameux colosse de Rhodes était une des sept merveilles du monde : c'était une statue du soleil assez élevée pour que les vaisseaux passassent dessous (715.); elle avait cent pieds de hauteur (651.); il y avait peu d'hommes qui pussent (965.) en embrasser le (730.) pouce.

V.—THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. (204.)

982. The Imperative‡ presents no difficulty. Observe, however, that what is set down in the models of the four regular conjugations as the third person of the Imperative, e.g., QU'IL PARTE (p. 101.), is, according to French grammar, the third person of the subjunctive, governed by something understood, as is plainly observable from the verb being preceded by the conjunction que, the office of which is to connect a verb with another verb expressed or understood; and also from the termination which is always that of the subjunctive. In French grammars published in France there is no mention of the third person of the Imperative. I have only put a third person in the different paradigms for the sake of giving a general translation of the English forms "let him or her carry," &c. When we say in French: (1.) qu'il parte; (2.) qu'elle soit heureuse; (3.) qu'ils sachent, &c., we speak elliptically, and mean: (1.) nous voulons, nous demandons, nous exigeons qu'il PARTE (955.); (2.) nous désirons (955.) qu'elle sort heureuse; (3.) il faut, il est à désirer (964.) qu'ils SACHENT, as the feeling may be. Thus clearly proving that qu'il parte, qu'elle soit heureuse, and qu'ils sachent, are in the SUBJUNCTIVE.

983. This I wished to point out, to show learners that frequently they will require to translate literally what is called (improperly, I think) the third person of the Imperative:

1. Let that child sleep.
2. Let him go with me.

1. Laissez dormir cet enfant.
2. Laissez-le partir avec moi.

Après si on emploie volontiers le plus-que-parfait du subjonctif pour celui de l'indicatif, et aussi pour le conditionnel passé dans tous les cas (note, p. 315).

Quant à l'impératif, il ne peut faire partie d'une véritable proposition. Tout au plus devrait-on le considérer comme une espèce de mode exceptionnel devant lequel l'analyse devrait rétablir un membre de phrase sous-entendu, tel que j'ordonne, je prie, il faut que.-(Léon Vaïsse, Encyclopédie moderne.)

984. In certain cases, the English form, "let him," &c., requires to be expressed in French altogether differently:

Let him have that book.

DONNEZ-LUI ce livre.

Fifth Section.-The Participles.

(PAGES 129, 130.)

1. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE OR GERUND IN ANT.

Peculiarities of the Present Participle in English.

The gerund in "ing," or active participle, is of much more frequent use in English than the present participle is in French. "Nothing can more strongly characterize the two languages. Not the least resemblance is there between them in this respect.”—(COBBETT.) 985. (a.) The Present Participle must often be rendered by some personal word preceded by que, de ce que, à ce que, parce que:—

1. I am surprised at your not having received my letter.

2. I attribute his progress to his knowing Latin.

3. The greater part of our follies and vices proceed from our not knowing how to occupy ourselves when we are alone.

1. Je suis surpris que vous n'ayez pas reçu (955.) ma lettre.

2. J'attribue ses progrès à ce qu'il sait le latin.

3. La plupart des folies et des vices proviennent de ce qu'on ne sait pas s'occuper quand on (824.) est seul.

N.B.-SEE ALSO PAGE 309, No. 913.

986. (b.) When the Present Participle performs the part of a noun, it is expressed as such :-

1. Wishing of all employments is the worst. -(YOUNG.)

2. The moving of my lips should assuage your grief.-(JOB xvi. 5.)

1. Les souhaits sont de toutes les occupations la plus mauvaise.

2. Le mouvement de mes lèvres adoucirait votre douleur.

987. (c.) Observe the French of the following examples (see note †, p. 275.):

1. I see her dancing on the lawn.

2. I saw them talking to each other.

1. Je la vois qui danse sur la pelouse.

2. Je les ai vus qui causaient.

988. (d.) Sometimes the English present (active) participle is expressed

in French by the past participle (passive):

1. Barnaby stood leaning on his spade. 1. Barnabé se tenait appuyé sur sa bêche. (DICKENS.)

2. And when he rose up from prayer, and was come to his disciples, he found them sleeping for sorrow.—(LUKE XXII. 45.)

2. Et s'étant levé de sa prière, il vint vers ses disciples qu'il trouva endormis de tristesse.

989. (e.) With the compound past participle, étant ("being") is often understood:

Ces édits rendus, le roi rentra au Palais-Royal. Those edicts being issued, the king returned -(A. DUMAS.) to the Palais-Royal.

Exercise LV.

1. Their coming (985.) hither has ruined them. 2. Her pleasing them has made her get a rich husband. 3. The running away of the army left the town exposed to the enemy. 4. A seeing (987.) man is not easily deceived. 5. We saw (past def.) the Indians running away. 6 He was reclining (988.) under the shade of a wide-spreading beech-tree. 7. His

embassy being (989.) finished, M. d'Argenson's father retired on his estate. 8. Some Phocœan women, seeing their husbands and sons fleeing (fuir to be placed after vOYANT), hastened (921.) to meet them, and compelled them to go back to victory or death. 9. It is by (903.) studying that we (824.) learn a foreign language. 10. People (824.) cannot see her without loving (407.) her. 11. He never has any money for want of asking. 12. All the while that she was burning my omelet, she kept-eyeing-me-from-head-to-foot. (Tout en brûlant mon omelette, elle me TOISAIT.†)

3. Fuite, f. 4. Facile à tromper. 6. Couché à l'ombre d'un hêtre touffu. 7. Ambassade, f., se retirer dans ses terres. 8. Phocéenne, époux,‡ courir au devant et forcer de retourner. 9. Langue, f. 11. Faute d'en.

The Verbal Adjective. (324. p. 129.)

As it is sometimes difficult to know whether the verbal form in ANT is a gerund or an adjective, the following observations are intended to explain the subject:—

990. (a) The gerund denotes action, and is generally preceded by en, (sometimes understood,) or can be turned into another tense of the verb with qui, or one of the expressions lorsque, parce que, puisque, quand :—

1. La vapeur s'échappait en sifflant de la locomotive.

2. Plus de la moitié de la terre est peuplée d'animaux vivant et mourant sans le savoir; -i.e., Qui vivent et meurent, &c.

3. La mer mugissant ressemblait à une personne irritée;—i.e., En mugissant, or parce qu'elle mugissait.

4. Seule, errant à pas lents sur l'aride rivage,

La corneille enrouée appelle aussi l'orage."-(L'abbé Delille.) i.e., Quand, lorsque la corneille erre seule à pas lents, elle annonce l'orage.

991. (b) The verbal adjective in ANT denotes state, or continued action or habit, and could be used with one of the tenses of être, or turned into some synonymous adjective (324.), and as such agrees:-

1. Ces hommes prévoyants ont aperçu le danger; we could prévoyants," &c., or: "Ces hommes prudents," &c.

say: Ces hommes qui sont

2. Ils ont eu la témérité de s'engager sur cette mer mugissante; i.e., orageuse, furieuse. 3. Il y a des peuples qui vivent errants dans les déserts. "Ici c'est une habitude qu'on exprime: les peuples qui errent pendant toute leur vie sont des peuplades habituellement errantes, vagabondes, des races nomades enfin."-(POITEVIN.)

992. Beaucoup de participes présents changent d'orthographe en passant à l'état d'adjectifs; tels sont: 1° extravagant, fatiguant, intriguant, qui perdent l'u du radical: extravagant, fatigant, intrigant; 2° fabriquant, vaquant, dans lesquels la suppression de l'u entraîne le changement de la consonne du radical: fabricant, vacant; 3° enfin, adhérant, affluant, différant, excellant, &c., qui changent la voyelle a en E: adhérent, affluent, différent, excellent, &c., comme pour se rapprocher de l'étymologie latine.—(POITEVIN.)

Exercise LVI.

1. That young lady, by obliging her friends, has deserved their esteem. 2. Your mother is very obliging. 3. She has prepossessing manners. 4. Emily is gentle, affable, and attentive. 5. By anticipating the wishes of others, you will make yourself beloved. 6. Those men foreseeing the danger* (m.), put themselves on their guard. 7. Those provident men perceived the danger. 8. The queen-mother, for a long time wandering, died at Cologne in the midst of poverty. 9. The Moors, rushing down from their mountains, over

↑ Toiser.-"I have introduced this verb, toiser, to give you an instance of how much is sometimes said by a word, more than can be said by any other word (answering to that one) in another language." -(W. COBBETT, No. 438.)

Toiser, to measure (with a toise, or "fathom,") in length, breadth, or height; to eye from head to foot, generally with disdain or suspicion: "De lâches rivaux se toisent longtemps avant de s'attaquer."(BOISTE.)

Epoux, "husband," and épouse, " wife," belong to elevated style. MARI and FEMME are the usual expressions:-Ces mots, époux, épouse, sont en telle disgrâce (dans la conversation), qu'on ne citerait guère qu'une circonstance où ils ne rendent pas ridicule la phrase où on les introduit:-Après la cérémonie, les jeunes époux (the newly-married couple) sont partis pour la campagne.

ran (imp.) and plundered Africa. 10. All the portraits* (m.) of that French artist are good and striking likenesses; all the characters of his paintings are living and speaking pictures. 11. They (On) saw (imp.) wrecks floating towards the shore. 12. The goddess saw (past def.) floating ropes on the coast. 13. They (824.) heard the terrible* (616.) hammers striking the anvil. 14. The hills sheltered (imp.) our coast from the scorching south winds. 15. They (824.) think him intriguing (992.), because he has been appointed to an office which another solicited (imp.); it was (c'est) by services, and not by (903.) intriguing, that he has obtained it. 16. My mother, ever scheming and ever active, scarcely ever leaves either of us idle.

*

1. Jeune personne. 3. Manière, f., prévenant. 4. Doux, prévenant. 5. Prévenir, se faire aimer. 6. Prévoir, se mettre sur ses gardes. 7. Prévoyant. 8. Errant, mourir dans la pauvreté. 10. Ressemblant (good), frappant, personnage, tableaux (m.), vivant, parlant. 11. Apercevoir, débris (m.), côte (f.). 12. Cordage (m.). 13. Marteau (m.), frapper, enclume (f.). 14. Mettre à l'abri, vent (m.), brûlant. 15. Poste (m.), postuler. 16. Projetant, agissant, ne nous laisse guère oisifs ni l'un ni l'autre.

II.—THE PAST PARTICIPLE. (P. 130.)
Exercise LVII.

N.B.-Before writing the following Exercise, the pupil will require to read over again the eight rules given at page 130.

(a) 1. Fanny had (imp.) a TORN dress. 2. They (f.) appeared (imp.) ASTONISHED. 3. The wicked have much difficulty in (a) remaining UNITED. 4. TRANSPORTED with joy, Emily and Fanny came to see me in my prison* (f.)

(b) 5. My sisters have WALKED for three hours. 6. Have Mary and Julia SPOKEN during my absence*?—Yes, they have SPOKEN to Mary and Rosina, who have answered (887.) them. 7. Semiramis (has) REIGNED over the Assyrians. 8. The justice* (f.) and moderation (f.) of their enemies have HURT (887.) them more than their valour.

(c) 9. The Indians have been BEATEN. 10. Our omelet was FINISHED. 11. The city of London having been BURNT in 1666, was (fut) REBUILT in three years more beautiful and more regular than before (auparavant). 12. Tell me where (878.) the books you have bought (329.) have been BOUND.

(d) 13. The Amazons have ACQUIRED celebrity. 14. We have BOUND all your books. 15. Have your readers REVISED all the proofs of the first chapter?

(e) 16. These are the proofs that we have READ. 17. Ladies, I have PUNISHED you because you deserved (imp.) it. 18. Henrietta said to Clara, "I have SEEN you, but you have not SEEN me." 19. Marshal (542.) Villars often said that the two most lively pleasures he had (965.) FELT in his life had (avaient) been the first prize which he had OBTAINED at (the) college, and the first victory which he had GAINED over the enemy.

(f) 20. They (f.) have SPOKEN to one another. 21. They have SUCCEEDED one another (887.). 22. The Russians and the Swedes have seized Livonia, and have QUARRELLED for the possession* (f.) of that province.* (f.) 23. We met (past indef.), but did not speak. (684.)

(g) 24. What lessons we should have lost (329.), if Cicero and Fénélon had not GIVEN themselves up to the study of wisdom! 25. I have read all the letters that they have WRITTEN to one another. 26. Mme de Sévigné has RENDERED herself celebrated by the graces of her style* (m.). 27. Man has few evils but those he has OCCASIONED himself. 28. You have not washed (330.) your hands.—I assure you we have WASHED them.

(h) 29. The heat we have HAD has caused violent* storms. 30. Great misfortunes have happened (298.) to him.

1. Robe, f. 3. Peine, f. 4. Me trouver. 5. Pendant. 8. Put plus before the past part. 12. Relier. 13. Amazone. 15. Correcteur, revoir, épreuve, f., chapitre, m. 19. Vif, ressentir, prix, m., victoire, remporter. 22. Se sont emparés de la Livonie, se disputer. 24. Leçon, f., se livrer. 26. Se rendre célèbre. (See note 5, p. 246.) 27. N'a guère de maux, m., se donner. 28. Se laver les (726.). 29. Faire (303.) orage, m. 30. Malheur, m., arriver.

Observations concerning some difficulties connected with the agreement of the Past Participle, extracted from Poitevin's "Cours de langue française.” 993. Tout participe passé d'un verbe intransitif, employé transitivement, s'accorde avec le complément direct qui le précède :-

Il a retrouvé les enfants qu'il avait tant PLEURÉS.