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It is a mistake to say that Joseph Pilsudski is a self-appointed chief and that the Diet, chosen on so democratic a basis that it had an unworkable majority of illiterate peasants, has not had intelligent energy enough to pass a single law for the relief even of the disheartened tillers of soil.

As a matter of fact Joseph Pilsudski took his powers from the Regency, at that time the only legitime and de facto government, convoked an assembly elected through a direct, universal, secret and proportionate vote of all adults both male and female, irrespective of language, faith, social standing, etc., and then resigned. Re-elected as Chief of the State by the unanimous will of that assembly he assumed his office again and is now holding it by their authority. The cabinet appointed by Pilsudski is responsible before the Diet.

That Diet has not one single illiterate man or woman amidst the representatives. Besides a very heavy task of organizing the entire complex governmental structure of a new country of thirty millions the Diet passed many important laws, especially regarding the "disheartened tillers of the soil the agrarian reform (July 10, 1919), restricting land ownership to those persons who perform farming personally and confining the maximum of owned land.

Pilsudski is not a "sphinx." He is considered in Poland as the embodiment of the modern Polish political mind. Somebody said in Versailles, that "Pilsudski was the first man to outwit the German diplomacy." This explains his stand toward Prussia in 1914. Pilsudski does not know and will not know any service but that for the sake of Poland.

Chicago, Nov. 1, 1920.

Yours truly,

EARNEST L. LILIEN.

In connection with the two conflicting views as just quoted it is interesting to hear a statement made by the Polish Consul General Z. Nowicki of Chicago.

"Led by his veterans, the mobs of Warsaw and elsewhere disarmed and drove out the German garrisons. The Regency of three, a Prince, an Archbishop, and a makeweight, had been figureheads only, under Prussian dictation." As this state of affairs met with a general disapproval and evergrowing resentment on the part of all Polish political parties, who demanded a more independent policy, the German provisional socialist government in Berlin felt compelled to release Pilsudski at a cathegorical request by that same Regency, which saw in Psilsudski at that time the only man, being able to concentrate the various political parties on a common national program.

Pilsudski took the powers of the Regency in his hands-declaring at the same time solemnly to accept it merely in order to bring about a national assembly. Only three months later the Diet, elected upon the broadest democratic basis by the entire adult population irrespec

tive of sex, race, creed, social standing, gathered in Warsaw and accepted the renunciation of Pilsudski only to invest him with the same power by an unanimous vote.

Now this Diet, although composed to a considerable part of peasants-of course the most prominent among them-has proved to be very efficient in building up the whole complex governmental structure and organizing fully the entire public life of a country from the village, county, district, to the very top, on the same democratic basis of self-administration. Besides that the Diet had to pass so many social laws, among which one should be pointed out on account of its tendency and economical importance: the agrarian reform, carried by the Diet on July 10, 1919. This law acknowledges land-ownership only to persons who perform farming personally and fixes the maximum of owned land to from 60 to 180 acres according to the quality of land and its distance from the centers.

This enormous task of organization could not but delay the creation of a constitution for the country. Nevertheless it is governed already now in accordance with the most liberal traditions of Poland, with the application of the broadest citizen rights, by a cabinet of ministers appointed by the Chief of the State in constant touch and mutual agreement of the Diet to which the ministers are responsible."

Vienna, October 21 (Via London, October 22.)-Jugo Slavia is declared to be a constitutional, hereditary monarchy with the Karageorgiewitch family the reigning dynasty.

According to reports reaching here from Belgrade, this decision was taken yesterday at the ministerial council held there. The council also decided the royal arms shall be a double-headed white eagle with the arms of Croatia and Slovenia on its breast, while the National flag shall be blue, white and red.

The council expressed itself is favor of a unified state with single legislative parliament, but advocated broadly based, non-legislative, local autonomy throughout the monarchy.

CHAPTER VI

THE WORLD EMPIRE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ITS IMPERIALISTIC

GOVERNMENT

It has taken several centuries to bring Great Britain, by a process of evolution, out of a state of subjection to an absolute monarchy, into a system of mixed, or limited monarchy, under a constitutional government, as it is now under King George V., but which retains its imperialistic policy.

The British Empire does not claim to have a written constitution but still, as we will show, a great deal has been committed to writing in well-known acts of Parliament, and charters.

The political power is vested in two chambers, the House of Lords containing the peers, and the House of Commons, composed of deputies representing the people, not the peers. In the latter, originate all bills for raising money, or expending the same. The crown must have the support of the House of Commons.

Before reaching its present condition the British government went through a period of many changes. The Revolution of 1688-1689 was signalized by putting into written form no inconsiderable portion of the English constitution as it then existed. During the time of Cromwell, the following resolution was adopted in parliament: "The people are under God, the original of all just power; and the Commons of England in Parliament assembled, being chosen by the people, have the supreme power of this nation."

May 16, 1640, Kingship and the House of Lords having been abolished as "equally useless and dangerous," Parliament, to complete the work of transformation, proclaimed the Commonwealth, or Republic, and on the great seal was inscribed the legion "In the first year of freedom by God's blessing restored."

In 1654, there was put into operation the Constitution, the earliest among written constitutions in modern Europe, known as the "Instrument of Government." (See Gardener, Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 405-417; Adams and Stevens, Select Documents 407-411; Frederick Austin Ogg's Governments of Europe.)

This constitution provided for a life protector, and a council of thirteen to twenty-one members as a legislative organ, an unicameral parliament of 450 members. Cromwell accepted the office of Protector. (See J. A. R. Marriott, Second Chamber and Deductive Study Political Science, Oxford (1910) Chap, 3.)

"In 1657 Cromwell refused to assume the title of King, but accepted a new constitution; the humble petition and advice which re-established a parliament of two chambers, a House of Commons and the other house."

The remnant of the Commons abolished monarchy and the

House of Lords and set up a republic under the name of the Commonwealth 1649. Charles I was executed January 1, 1649.

The constitution in accordance with which Charles the Second and James the Second, 1660-1689, were expected to govern, was that which had been set up during preceding centuries, amended by the important changes affected by the Long Parliament in 1641.

May 26, 1679, the Habeas Corpus Act was guaranteed. (Stubbs Select Charters, page 517.)

In 1688, William of Orange, the Stadtholder of Holland, husband of Mary, daughter of James the Second, who fled to France, succeeded the former king. A convention parliament declared the throne vacant, and drew up the first Declaration of Rights, the third great document in the Bible of English liberties, and elected William and Mary joint sovereigns on condition of their consenting to the Declaration. Thus a supremacy of parliament over the king was once more established.

The new sovereign, like the old Lancastrians, had only a parliamentary title to the throne. The next regular parliament turned this document into the "Bill of Rights." This became a part of the written Constitution of England and the royal tenure became vested in the will of the people." (Stubbs Eng. Constitution, page 507.) By an act of Parliament, the veto power of the House of Lords was taken away.

"Government" by the Ministry became an established part of the English Constitution. Parliament could remove the ministry. In its essence, therefore, the cabinet is an informal but permanent caucus of the parliamentary chiefs of the party in power, and it must be remembered that the chiefs of the party are all in parliament. Its object is to receive the cohesion without which the party cannot retain a majority in the House of Commons and remain in power. The machinery is one of wheels within wheels. The outside ring consisting of the party that has the majority in the House of Commons; the next ring being the ministry, which contains the men who are most active with the party; and smallest of all being the cabinet containing the real leadership. By this means is secured that unity of party action which depends upon placing the direct power in the hands of a body small enough to agree, and influential enough to control." (A. Lawrence Lowell, Governments of England.)

"In England there is, in fact, only one conclusive means of expressing the popular will-that of an election to the House of Commons; and in ordinary cases there is only one body that has power to interpret that expression. The Cabinet placed in office by the House so elected." A. Lawrence Lowell, quoting Professor Dicey, says:

"The royal assent is given to all bills passed by the House of Commons. The privilege of the crown to veto an act of parliament is practically obsolete, yet the right remains."

"It is the rule under the English constitution, that the king must act on the advice of his ministers, and they must resign, or dissolve parliament, when they lose the confidence of the majority of the House of Commons."

Professor Frederick Austin Ogg is his "Government of Europe," says: "During the Eighteenth Century era of royal weakness, the cabinet acquired a measure of independence by which it was enabled to become, for all practical purposes, the ruling authority of the realm; and, under the limitation of strict accountability to the House of Commons, it fulfills substantially that function today. Its members, as will appear, are at the same time the heads of the principal executive departments, the leaders in the legislative chambers, and the authors of very nearly the whole of governmental policy and conduct." He refers to "The Development of Cabinet Government in England," by M. T. Blauvelt (New York, 1902, chapter 1-8); and E. Jenks, "Parliamentary England. The Evolution of Cabinet System." (New York, 1903.)

"The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested nominally in the crown, but practically in a Committee of Ministers, commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence is dependent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons. An Act to establish a separate Parliament in Ireland, with an executive responsible to it, was passed in 1914, but its operaton has been postponed pending the termination of the European War.

The First Lord of the Treasury is, as a rule, the Chief of the Ministry, and on his recommendation his colleagues are appointed. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919

An Act to make further provision with respect to the Government of India (December 23, 1919).

PART I

Whereas, it is the declared policy of Parliament to provide for the increasing association of Indians in every branch of Indian administration, and for the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in British India as an integral part of the empire:

And whereas, progress in giving effect to this policy can only be achieved by successive stages, and it is expedient that substantial steps in this direction should now be taken:

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