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occurred some time before the Spanish invasion. It was the first valley site occupied by them on coming down from the pueblo and cliff-villages of Otowi, and illustrates their first efforts in building entire house-walls of adobe. Prior to this time adobe had been used

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by them simply as plaster. This village consisted of twelve sections (see plan, fig. 5), four of which (sec. a, h, k, l) were completely detached, two (sec. i, j) joined together in one building, and the remaining six (sec. b, c, d, e, f, g) connected, forming the main nucleus of the village

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and inclosing two large courts. There are remains of three circular subterranean kivas in the village. Excavations at the site disclose no traces of Spanish influence. The pottery is more closely related to that of Otowi than it is to that of the present San Ildefonso.

No. 8. Otowi.-About five miles west of the point where the Rio Grande enters White Rock canyon are the remains of the extensive prehistoric settlement of Otowi. To reach it one ascends the mesa by following up the Alamo canyon from its confluence with the Guages. The top of the mesa is reached at the head of that part of Alamo canyon known as the Black Gorge. The first canyon entering the Alamo from the north above this point is Otowi canyon. Following this up for about two miles, a point is reached where the long narrow potrero bounding the canyon on the north is entirely cut out for a distance of nearly a mile, thus throwing into one squarish, open park the width of two small canyons and the formerly intervening mesa. From the midst of this little park, roughly a mile square, a view of surpassing beauty is to be had. Half a mile to the south the huge mesa which is terminated by Rincon del Pueblo bounds the valley with a high unbroken line, perhaps 500 feet above the dry arroyo at the bottom. The same distance to the north is the equally high and more abrupt Otowi mesa, and east and west an equal distance and to about an equal height rise the wedge-like terminal buttes which define this great gap in the middle mesa. Toward the four corners one looks into beautifully wooded gorges. The whole area is well forested. The parallel canyons running through this glade are prevented from forming a confluence by a high ridge, the remnant of the intervening mesa. Upon the highest point of this ridge is located a large pueblo ruin which formed the nucleus of the Otowi settlement. In every direction are clusters of excavated cliff-dwellings of contemporaneous occupation and on a parallel ridge to the south are the ruins of one pueblo of considerable size and of seven small ones, all antedating the main Otowi settlement.

Two types of excavated cliff-dwellings are found at Otowi. The first (pl. II, a) is the open-front dwelling, usually, though not always, single-chambered-in most cases a natural cave enlarged and shaped by excavation.

The second type (pl. 11, b) is wholly artificial, with closed front of the natural rock in situ. Cliff-dwellings of this type are usually multiple chambered, with floors below the level of the threshold; they have generally a crude fireplace beside the doorway, but are seldom provided with a smoke vent. The rooms are commonly rectangular and well shaped, with floors plastered always, and walls usually so to a height of three or four feet. The front walls are from one to two feet thick. In some cases a little masonry has been used in the form of casing about the doorways. In a number of instances porches

were built over the doorways, but nowhere were complete houses built against the cliff, as at Tshirege.

For the most part the dwellings are found in clusters and at two general levels, that is, at the top of the long steep slope of the talus, and again in the face of a second terrace far above the talus and exceedingly difficult of access.

From about half a mile to a mile above the main pueblo of Otowi is a cliff-village that is unique. Here is a cluster of conical formations of white tufa, some of which attain a height of thirty feet (pl. v1). These are popularly called "tent rocks." They are full of caves, both natural and artificial, some of which have been utilized as human habitations. These dwellings are structurally identical with those found in the cliffs. They present the appearance of enormous beehives.

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The main pueblo ruin at Otowi differs in plan from any other in this region (fig. 6). It consists of a cluster of five houses, situated on sloping ground and connected at one end by a wall, with the exception of the house marked e on the plan, which was detached. These were terraced structures, probably almost an exact counterpart of the present terraced houses at Taos, though perhaps somewhat smaller and containing a less number of stories. No one of the houses at Otowi had more than four stories and none fewer than two. The ground plan here shown is only approximately correct. A drawing showing the exact alignment of walls can not be made until many tons of stone are removed. Accordingly some conjectural work was necessary in making the plan. Altogether the five houses contained about 450 rooms on the ground floor. The number of superimposed

rooms is largely a matter of conjecture; the writer estimates this at 250, making a total of about 700 rooms.

There were ten circular kivas at Otowi, all subterranean and outside. of the walls of the buildings with two exceptions (see plan, fig. 6, sec. a, e). Kivas within the pueblo walls were unusual in the pueblos of Pajarito plateau. They exist in the great ruin at the base of Pedernal peak and are found also in the older and smaller houses.

A reservoir, which doubtless supplied water for drinking purposes at times, was placed, as was often the case in both ancient and modern pueblos, so as to receive the drainage from the village.

The traditions of Otowi are fairly well preserved. It was the oldest village of Powhoge clans of which they have definite traditions at San Ildefonso. They hold in an indefinite way that prior to the building of this village they occupied scattered "small house" ruins on the adjacent mesas, and they claim that when the mesa life grew unbearable from lack of water, and removal to the valley became a necessity, a detachment from Otowi founded the pueblo of Perage in the valley on the west side of the Rio Grande about a mile west of their present village site.

No. 9. This is a small pueblo ruin in Otowi canyon just across the arroyo about 300 yards south of Otowi pueblo. It is situated on top of a narrow ridge which runs parallel with the one on which the large ruin stands. The stones of the building are smaller and the construction work is cruder. The building consists of one solid rectangle with one kiva within the court. Seven other small pueblo ruins or clan houses are scattered along the same ridge to the west within a distance of one mile, all apparently belonging to this settlement.

No. 10. Tsankawi (Tewa, "place of the round cactus").-About two miles southeast of Otowi is the ruin of Tsankawi, the most picturesquely situated of any settlement of primitive people ever seen by the writer, with the exception of Chipiinuinge at the base of Pedernal peak. It is a veritable "sky city." From the top of Tsankawi mesa one looks upon a stupendous panorama-the Jemez range on the west; on the eastern horizon, a hundred miles of the lofty Santa Fé range; glimpses of the Rio Grande and its fertile valley through a cleft. some five miles away, beyond which lies a dreary sand-waste; and near at hand in every direction huge yellow volcanic mesas and profound depths of wooded canyons. The site was chosen entirely for its defensive character and is an exceptionally strong one.

The builders of Tsankawi kept to the orthodox rectangular plan, as shown in figure 7. The masonry is in no respect different from that of Otowi. There were ten kivas at Tsankawi-a large number for the population, which probably never exceeded 300 to 400 people, although this would be considerably increased if we should count the population

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of the cliff-village in the south face of the mesa. Tsankawi was a composite pueblo, consisting of four virtually independent houses. The ground plan of this pueblo embraces about 200 rooms. The sections were each probably three stories high. Plate VII, a, illustrates the entire development of this village.

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No. 11.-This ruin is situated in Canyon de los Alamos on a high ridge running parallel with the stream on its south side. It is about three-quarters of a mile west of Tsankawi and its inhabitants eventually merged with the population of that village. The settlement consisted of one rectangular pueblo of considerable size and a number of small clan houses scattered along the ridge to the west for about half a mile. It belongs to the older class of ruins.

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