ceous slate or plates of mica. The mica is sometimes in considerable quantities in those friable sandstones which accompany coal. Some sandstones are so ferruginous as to form a valuable ore of iron, containing either an oxide or the carbonate of iron. Sandstone, although decidedly a secondary rock, has been formed at different periods, under different circumstances, and is hence associated with different rocks. Red sandstone is sometimes connected with coal. Sandstone, more particularly in the older formation, sometimes contains metallic substances disseminated through the mass, or in beds or veins. Among these are sulphurets of iron, mercury, lead and copper, pyritous copper, and arsenical cobalt. Various organic remains occur in sandstone, among which are reeds, impressions of leaves, trunks of trees, and shells, both fluviatile and marine. In the U. States, sandstone is abundant in various parts. Sandstone, in some of its varieties, is very useful in the arts, and is often known by the name of freestone. When sufficiently solid, it is employed as a building stone. In most cases, it may be cut equally well in all directions; but some varieties naturally divide into prismatic masses. Some varieties are used as mill-stones for grinding meal, or for wearing down other minerals, preparatory to a polish. These stones, while rapidly revolving, sometimes burst with a loud and dangerous explosion. When the texture is sufficiently porous, sandstone is employed for filtering water. Some varieties are used for whetstones. Some sandstones absorb moisture, and, by exposure to the changes of the atmosphere, are gradually disintegrated; others become more solid by much exposure. Puddingstone, or conglomerate, is only a very coarse sandstone. It is composed of siliceous pebbles of quartz, flint, siliceous slate, &c., united by a cement, which is usually siliceous, sometimes both siliceous and ferruginous, and sometimes a little argillaceous. These pebbles vary in size from that of a pea to that of an egg. They are ordinarily rounded or oval; and it is, in fact, chiefly by the more or less rounded form of these pebbles that puddingstone is distinguished from breccia. It is sometimes employed for mill-stones, and some varieties receive a good polish. All true conglomerates must of course be composed of fragments of previously existing rocks. They have, however, been formed at very different periods. A breccia is an aggregate of angular fragments of the same mineral, or of different min

erals, united by some cement. Sometimes, however, a few of the fragments are a little rounded.

SANDWICH ISLANDS; a cluster of islands in the North Pacific ocean, discovered by captains Cook and King in 1778, who gave them their present name in honor of the first lord of the admiralty. The group consists of ten islands, of which eight are inhabited, and extends from lat. 18° 50' to 22° 20′ N., and from lon. 154° 53′ to 160° 15′ W., lying about one third of the distance from the western coast of Mexico to the eastern coast of China. The population of the whole group was estimated by captain King at 400,000, but, according to Ellis, does not at present exceed 150,000, the diminution being owing partly to the desolating wars of Tamehameha's reign, and partly to the ravages of a pestilence brought in by foreign vessels, which has twice prevailed in the islands. The total superficial extent is about 6000 square miles. The principal islands in extent and population are Hawaii (Owhyhee), 4000 square miles, 85,000 inhabitants; Maui (Mowee), 600 square miles, 20,000 inhabitants; Oahu (Woahoo), 520 square miles, 20,000, containing the town of Honolulu, the residence of the king, of the foreign functionaries, and twelve or fourteen merchants, chiefly Americans, with about 7000 inhabitants; Tauai (Atooi), 525 square miles, 10,000 inhabitants. The latter island and Nihau (Oneehow) are distinguished for the cultivation of the yam, and are much resorted to by ships for supplies of that article. Most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. In some places, the volcanoes are in activity. Several of the summits are of great height. The loftiest, Mouna Roa, and Mouna Kea, are estimated at about 15,000 feet. The climate is warm, but not unhealthy, the winter being marked only by the prevalence of heavy rains between December and March. A meteorological table gives as the greatest heat during the year, 88° of Fahrenheit, as the least, 61°. The only quadrupeds originally found in these islands were a small species of hogs, dogs, and a sort of rat. There are now large herds of cattle in Hawaii, and many tame ones in the other islands, goats, sheep, and horses. There are no poisonous reptiles, excepting centipeds, which are neither large nor numerous. There are an abundance of sea-fowl on the coasts, and in the interior a species of parrot and a kind of woodpecker, with which the images of the gods were formerly adorned. The

vegetable productions are taro (arum esculentum), yam, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and strawberry. Oranges, grapes, and other tropical fruits, have been introduced, and thrive well, and some culinary vegetables are cultivated for the shipping which resorts thither. The situation of the Sandwich islands renders them important to vessels navigating the Northern Pacific, partly for repairs and provisions, and partly in commercial respects. After the visit of Vancouver (1792), they were not much visited, except by traders from the U. States, who, having discovered among them the sandal wood, conveyed large quantities of it to China, where it is burnt in the temples. The independence of the Spanish colonies, and the prosecution of the whale-fishery on the coasts of Japan have greatly increased their importance. The following account of the number and tonnage of American ships which annually visit them, is from Stewart's Visit to the South Seas in 1829 and 1830 (New York,1831):-Vessels direct from the U. States for sandal wood, returning by way of China or Manilla, six (together 1800 tons); vessels bound to North-west coast,which generally winter here, five (1000 tons); vessels bound from the Spanish-American republics to China or the East Indies, eight (2500 tons); vessels owned by American residents, and trading to North-west coast, to Mexico, China, and Manilla, six (1000 tons); vessels engaged in the whale-fishery on the coast of Japan, 100 (35,000 tons); making a total of 125 vessels, and 40,000 tons. The natives are, in general, rather above the middle stature, well formed, with fine muscular limbs, and open countenances. Their hair is black or brown, and frequently curly; their complexion a kind of olive, and sometimes reddishbrown. Their language is a dialect of that spoken by the inhabitants of the Society islands. They are of a mild and gentle disposition, inquisitive and intelligent; but previously to the abolition of their idolatrous religion, the practice of sacrificing human victims prevailed among them. Since their adoption of Christianity, they have made a no less wonderful progress in the arts of civilized life than in moral character. They have many convenient and handsome houses, neat and comfortable clothing, &c. Stewart, who visited the islands in 1829, after an absence of four or five years, gives a striking description of the change which had taken place in that interval. After the visit of captain Cook, who was killed at Hawaii in 1779,

the islands were involved in a series of destructive wars between several rival chiefs, for the undivided sovereignty. The result of these struggles was the ascendency of Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, a sagacious, enterprising and ambitious prince. He built a navy, armed his guard in the European manner, fortified his palace with cannon, encouraged commerce, and introduced various mechanical arts among his subjects. On his death in 1819, he was succeeded by his son Rihoriho; and at about the same time idolatry was abolished and the idols burnt. During the last year of his reign, Tauai and Nihau, the only islands of the group not subdued by Tamehameha, submitted to his government. Rihoriho, with his queen, died in England in 1824, and his brother and successor, Kauikeaouli, is at present (1832) about 20 years of age. The regency has been in the hands of the queenmother, Kaahumanu. In 1820, a mission was established at Hawaii by the American Board of Foreign Missions. The missionaries fortunately arrived just after the abolition of the national idolatry, and their efforts have been attended with great success. Not only have they introduced the arts, comforts and usages of civilized society to a great extent, but the Christian religion has been embraced by nearly the whole population. Printing presses have been established, books printed in the native language, an alphabet of twelve letters (five vowels and seven consonants) invented, schools established, and churches built. The Missionary Herald for Jan., 1832, states the whole number of schools in the islands to be above 900, with 50,000 learners. Missions have been established in Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, Taui; and in 1830 a band consisting of seven persons (three missionaries), and in 1831 another of nineteen persons (eight missionaries and a printer), sailed for the same destination. See Ellis, Tour through Hawaii (3d ed. 1827); lord Byron's Voyage to the Sandwich Islands (1827); Stewart's Residence in the Sandwich Islands.

SANDWICH-LAND; a barren, desert, and frozen island in the South Atlantic ocean, discovered by captain Cook in 1775; lat. 58° 35′ S.; lon. 26° 44′ W. Seals, whales, and other cetacea, penguins and other sea-birds, are the only animals found here.

SANDY HOOK; a small island on the coast of New Jersey, in the township of Middleton, seven miles south of Long Island, and 25 south of New York. It was formerly a peninsula. Sandy Hook,

or Point, forms a capacious harbor. Here is a light-house on the north point of the Hook, in lat. 40° 26′ N., lon. 72° 2′ W. SANDYS, George; second son of the archbishop of that name, born in 1577. In 1589, he was placed at Oxford. In 1610, he commenced his travels through the Levant and other parts of the Turkish empire, returning home through Italy, and staying some time at Rome. This journey occupied him upwards of two years. On his return to England, he published, in 1615, an account of the countries through which he had passed. This work was followed by several poetical productions, the first of which, a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, originally printed in London in 1627, with the first book of the Æneid annexed, is highly spoken of by Dryden, who styles the author "the best versifier of the last age." He also wrote a Paraphrase on the Psalms and upon the Hymns dispersed through the Old and New Testaments (London, 1636; reprinted in folio, 1638), and some other works. He died in 1643.

SANGALLO, Antonio, an eminent Italian architect of the sixteenth century, was born in the environs of Florence, and was intended for the business of a carpenter; but, happily visiting Rome, where he had two uncles who were architects, he was instructed by them in their art, his knowledge of which he perfected under Bramante, whom he succeeded as architect of the church of St. Peter. He was much employed under the popes Leo X, Clement VII, and Paul III, both in fortifying places and in the construction of public buildings, the grandeur and solidity of which have been much admired. He died in 1546.

SANGIAC (Turkish, horsetail) signifies, in the Turkish army, an officer who is allowed to bear only one horsetail, the pachas having two or three. The sangiac is also commonly the governor of a smaller district of country than a pachalic, thence called sangiacat, of which there are three or four in each pachalic. (See Turkey.) SANGIACAT. (See Sangiac, and Turkey.) SANGRAAL, OF SANGREAL. (See Round Table, and Romance.)

SANGUINARINA; a vegetable alkali, discovered by Mr. A. A. Hayes, of Roxbury, in the root of the sanguinaria Canadensis, or blood-root. It is obtained as follows: Digest the bruised root in three parts of cold diluted sulphuric acid (water ten, acid one); after 24 hours, decant the fluid, and repeat the operations twice, using water but slightly acidulated; mix the li

quors, and filter, and to the clear red liquor which passes, add a solution of ammonia, so long as it occasions precipitation; decant the fluid after subsidence, and wash the brown precipitate in cold water: it is sanguinarina combined with extractive and coloring matter, and mixed with some earths. Dissolve the soluble part in warm alcohol, and wash with the same; distil the clear fluid from a glass retort; when the solution becomes turbid by concentration, it must be decanted, while hot, into cylindrical vessels, one half filled with pure cold water: the alkali is precipitated in the form of a yellowish-white bulky powder, mingled with a substance insoluble in diluted acids, and resembling resin; by dissolving the soluble part in muriatic acid with ten of water, precipitating by ammonia, and treating as above, the alkali is obtained pure. It is a soft, white powder, destitute of odor, but having a bitter, acrid taste. It renders blue vegetable colors green; when heated, it melts into a brown, transparent and brittle substance. It dissolves in most acids, and forms along with them neutral salts of a pure scarlet-red color. The salts are soluble in water, to which they communicate their red color. They are inodorous; but their powder produces great irritation in the nostrils. They are all precipitated by infusion of galls,and are decomposed by alkalies and alkaline earths. The medicinal virtues of the salts of sanguinarina arechief. ly deobstruent, acrid-narcotic, and emetic. The efficacy of the blood-root is attributable solely to the presence of this alkali.

Be

SANHEDRIN (Syriac), or SYNEDRIUM (Greek); literally a council. The highest ecclesiastical and secular court of the Jews (q. v.), which was established for the decision of their internal differences, and the settlement of their affairs, was called sanhedrin. It consisted of seventy-one members, of the rank of priests, elders, and interpreters of the law (those skilled in biblical knowledge, or scribes), under the direction of the high-priest. sides this high council, which had its seat in Jerusalem, there were also inferior courts in the country towns, composed of persons of the same classes. In Jerusalem there were two of these inferior courts. These national tribunals were limited, by the Roman procurators, to the affairs of religion and the settlement of questions relating to the observance of the Mosaic law; and they could not, even in such cases, inflict the punishment of death arbitrarily. After the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, these courts

were annihilated, with the Jewish state. The great sanhedrin assembled at Paris, in 1806, by Napoleon, was only an occasional expedient, in order to regulate the civil relations of the Jews in the French empire. SAN MARINO. (See Marino.)

SAN MARTIN, José de, is a native of the Missions, on the banks of the river Parana. He made his first campaigns in the service of Spain, in the peninsula, holding the rank of captain; but he left Spain in 1811, and returned to his own country, where he rapidly rose to distinction. He received from the revolutionary government of Buenos Ayres the command of a division of the patriot army, with the commission of colonel. His first object was to improve the organization and discipline of the cavalry, in which he succeeded so well as to gain a victory over a small detachment of royalist troops at San Lorenzo, in 1813. This affair made him so conspicuous that he was appointed to the chief command in the province of Tucuman, in the hope that he might restore the patriot cause in that quarter, which was almost prostrated by the successive defeats of Belgrano. San Martin found only 570 men in Tucuman, the remnants of the patriot force. In the course of a few months, he had contrived to raise an army of 4000 men, from such slender beginnings. In 1814, he was obliged to resign his command by reason of bad health. When he resumed active service, he obtained the command in the province of Cuyo, contiguous to Chile, and devoted himself to the task of recruiting and equipping an expeditionary army, called the "army of the Andes," having for its object the liberation of Chile from the Spanish authority. The plan of the expedition was arranged in concert with O'Higgins and other Chilean exiles, who had taken refuge in Mendoza, the capital of Cuyo. Two years were consumed in the preparations necessary for this important movement. At length, at the very beginning of 1817, the patriot army of 4000 men broke up its cantonments at Mendoza, and entered the gorges of the Andes, to cross into Chile. San Martin effected the dangerous and difficult passage of the Andes in safety, and, February 12, encountering the Spanish forces posted at Chacabuco to resist his march, gained a complete and brilliant victory. Chile resumed its independence upon this event, O'Higgins becoming supreme director. Meanwhile, it was known that the viceroy of Peru was fitting out an expedition against the Chilean patriots; and prepara

tions were made to receive it. The opposing armies met at Maypu (April 5, 1818), and again San Martin gained a complete victory, which finally accomplished the deliverance of Chile. Emboldened by these successes, he now conceived the plan of carrying his liberating arms into Peru itself, the only remaining possession of Spain in South America. Meanwhile, the republic of Buenos Ayres was distracted by one of the numberless domestic bouleversemens which have rendered its public administration a satire on the name of government. The faction, which happened to possess an ephemeral ascendency in the capital, called on San Martin to relinquish his splendid enterprise of liberating Peru, and to recross the Andes with his army, for the purpose of wasting its energies in the provincial broils of the republic. San Martin, and the other officers of the expeditionary army, unanimously refused obedience to the order; in consequence of which he was denounced by the government at Buenos Ayres. Hereupon he resigned his commission into the hands of the officers, and was unanimously reelected by them, thus holding his authority independent of the government. The liberating army sailed from Valparaiso Aug. 21, 1820, the land forces, under San Martin, being supported by a squadron under lord Cochrane. They landed at Pisco, and, being sustained by the Peruvians, gained possession of Lima and of most of the country, a revolutionary government being installed in the capital, and San Martin declared protector of Peru, Aug. 3, 1821. Various measures were adopted, under his auspices, for giving firmness to the new order of things, although the royalists continued in force in the interior, and still held the castles of Callao. A congress was convened at Lima, Sept. 20, 1822, by virtue of the decrees of the protector; and he immediately resigned all his authority into their hands, accepting in return only the honorary titles of generalissimo and founder of the liberty of Peru, with a pension of $20,000 per annum. He withdrew from Peru, first to Chile, and afterwards to Europe, finding little inducement, it is to be presumed, to enter into public life in Buenos Ayres, and perhaps doubting of his personal security in that country. In leaving Peru, he gave evidence of the purity and disinterestedness of his purposes, and seems entitled to the praise of good intention, if not of brilliant ability. He is still living. (Miller's Mem., v. i.)

SANNAZARO, Jacopo, a distinguished Italian poet, who wrote both in Latin and Italian, was born at Naples, in 1458. He received his education in the school of Giuniano Maggo, and the academy of Pontanus, in which, according to the custom in the Italian academies, he adopted the name of Attius Sincerus. An early passion for Carmosina Bonifacia, whose praises he sung under the names of Harmosina and Phillis, unfolded his poetical talents. In the hope of conquering his love by separation, he went abroad, but, yielding to the impatience of his passion, returned to Naples, where he found his mistress dead. During his absence, he wrote his Arcadia, a series of idyls, which, although, like his other Italian poems, the work of his youth, still retains its reputation. His poetry attracted the notice of king Ferdinand and his sons Alphonso and Frederic, who made him the companion of their journeys and campaigns. Frederic, who ascended the throne in 1496, gave him the delightful villa Mergellina, with a pension of 600 ducats. But, in 1501, his benefactor was obliged to abdicate the throne, and flee to France; and Sannazaro was too faithful to desert him in his reverses. After the death of Frederic, he returned to Naples, and died there in 1533. He was buried in the church Santa Maria del Parto, which he had built at his villa. Sannazaro wrote sonnets and canzoni in Italian, several Latin poems, elegies, eclogues, epigrams, and a longer poem, De Partu Virginis, in three books. His elegance of expression, no less than the poetical beauty of his thoughts, give him a distinguished place among the modern Latin poets.

SANSCRIT, or SAMSCRIT (that is, the perfect), also DEVA-NAGARA (that is, the divine); a Brahminical language (because it is understood now by the Brahmins alone), the present dead language of the Hindoos, in which the books of their religion and laws, besides many other works of different sorts, are written. The remarkable similarity between the Sanscrit and the Greek languages reminds one of Gibbon's opinion, "that some, perhaps much, of the knowledge possessed by the Indians, originated from the Greeks of Bactriana." Francis Bopp has published a Complete System of the Sanscrit Language (Berlin, 1825, quarto). A. Langlois, also, in his Monuments littéraires de l'Inde, ou Mélanges de Littérature Sanscrite, &c. (Paris, 1827), has presented a popular view of the Sanscrit literature.

(See also Indian Languages, and Oriental Literature.)

SANS-CULOTTES (i. e. without breeches); the name given in derision to the popular party, by the aristocratical, in the beginning of the French revolution of 1789. Like the epithet gueux (q. v.), bestowed on the patriot party in the Netherlands, and like that of Methodists, bestowed on the friends of Wesley, it was adopted by those to whom it was first applied by way of contempt. At the time when the most exaggerated principles of democracy prevailed, sans-culottism became a term of honor. In the French republican calendar, the jours complémentaires were at first called jours sans-culottides. (See Calendar.)

SAN SEBASTIANO, or R19 JANEIRO. (See Rio Janeiro.)

SANS-SOUCI (French, without care); a palace near Potsdam, where Frederic the Great was fond of residing; hence he is sometimes called the philosopher of Sanssouci.

SANTA AÑA, Antonio Lopez de, a Mexican general, of signal military abilities, and greatly distinguished in the political affairs of the republic, first became known extensively at the time of the second revolution (so called), when Iturbide promulgated the plan of Iguala (Feb. 24, 1821). At the head of the desultory forces of the country, Santa Ana succeeded, by a coupde-main, in driving the royalists out of Vera Cruz, and in obtaining possession of that city, of which Iturbide appointed him governor. The castle of San Juan de Ulua, which commanded the harbor of Vera Cruz, continued to be held by the Spaniards; and in November, 1822, the emperor came to Xalapa, in the hope of effecting an accommodation with the Spanish governor of the castle. Meanwhile disputes had arisen between Santa Ana and general Echavarri, whom Iturbide had placed in command of the southern division, including Vera Cruz. The emperor summoned Santa Aña to Xalapa, to answer to the complaints made against him; and he, confident in the supposed good-will of Iturbide, whose cause he had zealously maintained, readily obeyed the summons. On his arrival, to his great surprise, he was treated harshly by Iturbide, and deprived of his command. Enraged by this unexpected treatment, Santa Aňa hurried back to Vera Cruz, riding day and night, so as to reach the city in anticipation of the tidings of his disgrace. Instantly assembling his own regiment, he exhorted them to take up arms against the