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trymen, he went to Paris with his company, and associated himself with Dominique and Romagnesi, with great success. In 1729, the duke of Parma appointed him inspector of the theatres in his dominions; but, in 1731, he returned to Paris, where he devoted his last years to literature, and died in 1753. He was the author of numerous comedies, and translated several pieces from the French. We have also by him an Histoire du Théâtre Italien. His wife Helen (born 1686) distinguished herself on the stage, and by her poetical compositions, which procured her admission into several Italian academies. Their son Francesco, born at Mantua in 1707, died at Paris in 1772, was more successful as a dramatic writer than as an actor. Besides his comedies, which were very popular, he wrote a work entitled L'Art du Théâtre (Paris, 1750). His wife, born at Paris in 1714, is esteemed one of the best French novelists. She suffered much from the neglect of her husband, and died in poverty, in 1792. Her complete works have been several times published (best edition, Paris, 1818, 6 vols., 8vo.).

RICE (oryza sativa). This important article of food is now cultivated in all the warmer parts of the globe. It was long known in the East before it was introduced into Egypt and Greece. Pliny, Dioscorides and Theophrastus mention it as being brought from India; but it was little cultivated in their time upon the borders of the Mediterranean. It was introduced into Carolina about the year 1697, and is now cultivated extensively in many parts of the south of Europe. In Britain, the chief supply of rice is from Carolina; and this is considered far superior to the India rice, which is small, meagre, and the grains frequently broken. Immense districts of country would have remained desolate and irreclaimable, if nature had not granted to a simple grass the property of growing exclusively in inundated and marshy grounds. It has altered the face of the globe and the destiny of nations; for there can be no doubt that it is to this grain that the Chinese and Hindoos owe their early civilization. An immense population in those and the surrounding countries is now dependent on the rice crops; and when these fail, thousands perish of hunger. The culm of the rice is from one to six feet high, annual, erect, simple, round, and jointed; the leaves are large, firm, and pointed, arising from very long, cylindrical, and finely striated sheaths; the flowers are disposed in a large and

beautiful panicle, somewhat resembling that of the oat. The seeds are white and oblong, but vary in size and form in the numerous varieties. It is important to be acquainted with these varieties, in order to choose which are best suited to certain soils or localities; some are preferable on account of the size and excellence of the grains; others, from their great bearing, or the time of ripening; others, again, from their more or less delicacy with respect to cold, drought, &c. The Hindoos, Chinese, Malays, and the inhabitants of the neighboring islands have paid most attention to the cultivation of these varieties. One species only of rice is known. Rice can be profitably cultivated only in warm climates; and here it is said to yield six times as much as the same space of wheat lands. The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and cultivate it in this way from generation to generation on the same soil, and without any other manure than the mud deposited by the water of the river used in overflowing it. After the waters of the inundation have withdrawn, a few days are allowed for the mud to become partially dry; then a small spot is enclosed by an embankment, lightly ploughed and harrowed, and the grain, previously steeped in dung diluted with animal water, is then sown very thickly on it. A thin sheet of water is immediately brought over it, either by a stream or the chainpump. In the mean time, other spaces are preparing for being planted in a similar manner. When the plants are six or seven inches high, they are transplanted in furrows made by the plough, so as to stand about a foot apart every way: water is then brought over them, and kept on till the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld; so that when the harvest arrives the field is quite dry. It is reaped with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or the treading of cattle, and the husk is taken off by beating it in a stone mortar, or passing it between flat stones, as in a common meal mill. The first crop being cut in May, a second is immediately prepared for, by burning the stubble, and this second crop ripens in October or November. After removal, the stubble is ploughed in, which is the only vegetable manure such lands can be said to receive. In Japan, Ceylon, and Java, aquatic rice is cultivated nearly in the same manner. A rice plantation requires constant attention. The proprietor must make daily visits, in order to see that the various aqueducts, flood-gates and embankments of the different compart

ments are all in order, and that the water constantly remains at the same height. The maturity of the grain is ascertained by the yellowness of the straw, and it is harvested much in the same manner as other grains, with this difference, that in certain districts the tops only are cut. Rice, when stowed in the granary, is subject to the depredations of a small curculio; but it is found that this insect attacks it only when enveloped in the husks. Aquatic rice is cultivated by the Chinese, even in the midst of rivers and lakes, by means of rafts made of bamboo and covered with earth. Mountain rice is cultivated on the mountains of the eastern islands and of Cochin-China, much in the same way as our barley; but it is to be observed, that it is planted at the commencement of the rainy, and reaped at the beginning of the dry season, and also that these mountains receive from the atmosphere a much greater proportion of moisture than lower districts. There is a kind of rice hardy enough to grow on the edge of the Himalaya snows, and which may probably, at some future time, prove a valuable acquisition to the European cultivator. Rice is even cultivated in the south of Germany, and, from long culture in a comparatively cold country, has acquired a remarkable degree of hardiness and adaptation to the climate-a circumstance which has frequently been alluded to as an encouragement to the acclimating of exotics: it is found that rice seeds direct from India will not ripen in Germany at all, and even Italian or Spanish seeds are much less early and hardy than those ripened on the spot. A crop has been obtained in England, on the banks of the Thames. In some parts of the East, rice is freed from the husks by immersion in hot water, by which the grains are slightly swelled, and burst the envelopes. As an article of diet, rice has been extolled as superior to almost any other vegetable. Large quantities are annually imported into Europe, and it is highly esteemed in puddings and numerous other culinary preparations. On account of its being destitute of gluten, it cannot be made into bread, like wheat. Indeed, on account of its excellence and cheapness, it claims attention as a general article of sustenance for the poorer classes of society; as it is well known that a quarter of a pound of rice, slowly boiled, will yield more than a pound of solid and nutritive food. However, it has been found that, in Europe, the poor constantly reject the use of rice when potatoes are to be had; and,

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in truth, it does not seem to be so well adapted to European constitutions as that root. The inhabitants of the East obtain from rice a vinous liquor, more intoxicating than the strongest wine; and an ardent spirit, called rak, or arrack, is also partly made from it. The latter is chiefly manufactured at Batavia, and at Goa, on the coast of Malabar, and is said to be distilled from a mixture of the infusion of rice and of the juice of the cocoa-nut tree. The general appellation of rice throughout the East Indies is paddy.

RICE-BUNTING, or BOB-O-LINK (icterus agripennis, Bonap.; emberiza oryzivora, Wilson); specific characters, tail-feathers very acute; adult male in spring dress, black; the hind head, yellowish-white; scapulars, rump and tail coverts, white, tinged with ash; female young, and male in early autumn and winter dress, varied with brownish-black and brownish-yellow, beneath dull yellow; the male with much more yellow. This bird migrates over the continent of America from Labrador to Mexico, and over the Great Antilles, appearing in the southern extremity of the U. States about the middle of March or beginning of April. About the first of May, the bob-o-links reach Massachusetts. The rearing of their young takes place north of the fortieth degree of latitude. Their food is insects and worms, and the seeds of the grassy meadows. In the autumn, they sometimes attack the crops of oats and barley. The song of the male continues, with little interruption, as long as the female is sitting, and is singular and pleasant; it consists of a jingling medley of short, variable notes, confused, rapid and continuous. The relish for song and merriment is confined to the male, and diminishes as the period of incubation advances. The male generally loses his musical talent about the end of the first week in July, from which time, or somewhat earlier, his plumage begins to lose its gay colors, and to assume the humble hue of that of the female. About the middle of August, they enter New York and Pennsylvania, in vast foraging parties, on their way to the south. There, along the shores of the large rivers lined with floating fields of wild rice, they find abundant subsistence, grow fat, and their flesh becomes little inferior in flavor to that of the European ortolan; on which account the reed or rice birds, as they are then called, are shot in great numbers. When the cool nights in October commence, they move still farther

south, till they reach the islands of Cuba the crew, and refused to deliver up the and Jamaica.

RICE GLUE. (See Cements.) RICHARD I, king of England, surnamed Cœur de Lion, second son of Henry II, by Eleanor of Guienne, was born in 1157. In 1173, he was induced by his mother to unite with his brothers, Henry and Geoffry, and other confederates, in a rebellion against his father, which, however, that active prince soon quelled. This conduct he repeated on more than one occasion, until, in 1189, he openly joined the king of France, and, in the war which ensued, pursued the unhappy Henry from place to place, who, being at the same time deserted by his youngest son, died, worn out with chagrin and affliction, at Chinon, cursing his undutiful and ungrateful children with his latest breath. (See Henry II.) On this event, Richard succeeded to the throne of England, and, visiting his father's corpse the day after his decease, expressed great remorse at his own conduct. Having settled his affairs in France, he sailed to England, and was crowned at Westminster. He prudently gave his confidence to his father's ministers, and discountenanced all who had abetted his own rebellion. He had taken the cross previously to his accession, and now bent all his views to the gratification of his martial ardor in the fields of the East. He raised money by the sale of the crown property and offices, and by every other means he could devise, including the remission of a large sum of the vassalage imposed by his father upon Scotland. He then sought an interview with Philip of France, who had also taken the cross, in which mutual conditions respecting their joint operations were agreed upon. A great number of English barons and others took the cross on this occasion, to which enterprise a massacre of the Jews, in several of the principal towns of the kingdom, formed a prelude. At midsummer, 1190, Richard and Philip united 100,000 of their bravest subjects on the plains of Vezelai. Richard then proceeded to embark at Marseilles, and the two kings met at Messina, where they spent the winter. Here Richard was joined by Berengaria, daughter of Sanchez, king of Navarre, his intended wife; but, without staying to celebrate his nuptials, he put to sea with his fleet, which was soon after dispersed by a storm. The king got into Crete; but those of his ships which had his bride and his sister, the queen of Sicily, on board, were driven into Cyprus, where the king of that island imprisoned

princesses. In revenge for this insult, Richard landed his army, and obliged the king to surrender himself and his sovereignty. In Cyprus, he consummated his nuptials, and then embarked for Palestine. At this period, the siege of Acre was carrying on by the remnant of the army of the emperor Frederic, and other Christian adventurers, and defended by a Saracen garrison, supported by the celebrated Saladin. (q. v.) The arrival of the two kings infused new vigor into the besiegers, and the place surrendered in July, 1191. This advantage was, however, succeeded by mutual jealousies, more especially excited by a contest for the crown of Jerusalem, between Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat; the former being supported by Richard, and the latter by the king of France. At length, disgusted with a warfare in which he only acted a secondary character, the latter returned to Europe, leaving 10,000 men with Richard. A general engagement took place, in which Richard, by the greatest bravery and military skill, gained a complete victory, which was followed by the possession of Joppa, Ascalon, and other places. Richard advanced within sight of Jerusalem; but, the greater part of the auxiliaries refusing to concur in the siege, he retired to Ascalon, and, perceiving his difficulties increase, concluded a truce with Saladin, on condition that Acre, Joppa, and the other seaports of Palestine, should remain in the hands of the Christians, who were also to enjoy full liberty of performing pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Richard now prepared to return to England, but previously concurred in the election of Conrad (almost immediately after assassinated) to the nominal sway of Jerusalem, and bestowed his conquered kingdom of Cyprus upon Lusignan. He embarked at Acre in October, 1192, and sailed for the Adriatic; but was wrecked near Aquileia. Taking the disguise of a pilgrim, he pursued his way through Germany, until, being discovered near Vienna, he was arrested by the order of Leopold, duke of Austria, who, having received an affront from him in Palestine, seized this opportunity to gratify his avarice and revenge. The emperor, Henry VI, who had also a quarrel with Richard, for his alliance with Tancred, the usurper of the crown of Sicily, hearing of his captivity, demanded him from Leopold who gave him up, on the stipulation of a portion of his ransom. While Richard was imprisoned, his brother John (q. v.)

had taken up arms in England, in concert with the king of France. Richard bore his misfortunes with courage, and when the emperor charged him, before the diet of Worms, with various imaginary offences, he refuted these accusations with so much spirit, that the assembly loudly exclaimed against his detention. At length a treaty was concluded for his liberation, on the payment of a ransom of 150,000 marks, which being raised in England, Richard obtained his liberty. Richard embarked at the mouth of the Scheldt, and safely reached England in March, 1194, to the great joy of his subjects. After being re-crowned in England, he landed in France in May, 1194, where he was met by his brother John, who threw himself at his feet, and, under the mediation of his mother, entreated forgiveness. "I forgive him," said Richard, "and I hope I shall as easily forget his injuries as he will my pardon." In the ensuing war with Philip, Richard gained some advantages; but a truce soon suspended their hostilities. Leopold, having received an accidental hurt which proved mortal, expressed remorse for his treatment of Richard, and gave up all claim to the remainder of his ransom. The emperor also offered to remit the remainder of his debt, provided he would join him in an offensive alliance against France, which was readily agreed to. England, during this period of useless contention, partly through the rapacity of government, and partly through unpropitious seasons, productive of famine and pestilence, was in a state of great depression. A lasting accommodation with France was in agitation, preparatory to another crusade, when the life and reign of Richard were suddenly brought to a close. A considerable treasure having been found in the land of the viscount of Limoges, he sent part of it to Richard as his feudal sovereign. The latter, however, demanded the whole; which being refused, he invested the castle of Chalus, where the treasure was concealed, and, having refused terms of surrender to the garrison, in the openly expressed determination of hanging the whole of them, was wounded by a shot from the crossbow of one Bertrand de Gourdon. The assault, was, however, successfully made, and all the garrison hanged, with the exception of Gourdon, who was reserved for a more cruel death. Richard, apprized that his wound was mortal, asked him what had induced him to attempt his life. The man replied, "You killed

my father and my brother with your own hand, and designed to put me to an ignominious death." The prospect of death had inspired Richard with sentiments of moderation and justice, and he ordered Gourdon to be set at liberty, and allowed a sum of money; but the savage Marcadée, who commanded the Brabançons, which the king had hired for the expedition, caused the unhappy man to be flayed alive. Richard died of his wound on the 6th of April, 1199, in the forty-second year of his age, and tenth of his reign, leaving no issue. The character of this king was strongly marked. He was the bravest among the brave, often frank and liberal, and not devoid of generosity. At the same time, he was haughty, violent, unjust, rapacious, and sanguinary; and, to use the expression of Gibbon, united the ferocity of a gladiator to the cruelty of a tyrant. His talents were considerable, both in the cabinet and in the field, and he was shrewd in observation, eloquent, and very happy at sarcasm. He was also a poet; and some of his reputed compositions are preserved among these of the Troubadours. On the whole, a sort of romantic interest is attached to the character and exploits of this which, in the eye of reason, they little merit, as the career of Richard produced calamities poorly atoned for by the rallitary reputation which alone attended it.

ince,

RICHARD II, king of England, son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III, was born in 1366. He succeeded the latter in 1377, in his eleventh year, the chief authority of the state being in the hands of his three uncles, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, Edmund, earl of Cambridge, efterwards duke of York, and Thomas of Woodstock, subsequently duke of Gloucester. The earlier years of the king's minority passed in wars with France and Scotland, the expense of which led to exactions that produced the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler. Its termination in the death of its chief leader in Smithfield, by the hand of the lord mayor of London, in the presence of the young king, afforded the latter an opportunity to exhibit a degree of address and presence of mind, which, in a youth of fifteen, was very remarkable. Whilst the rioters stood astonished at the fall of their leader, the young king calmly rode up to them, and, declaring that he would be their leader, drew them off, almost involuntarily, into the neighboring fields. In the mean time, an armed force was collected by the lord mayor and

others, at the sight of which the rioters fell on their knees and demanded pardon, which was granted them on the condition of their immediate dispersion. Similar insurrections took place in various parts of the kingdom, all of which were, however, put down, and Richard, now master of an army of 40,000 men, collected by a general summons to all the retainers of the crown, found himself strong enough to punish the ringleaders with great severity, and to revoke all the charters and manumissions which he had granted, as extorted and illegal. The promise of conduct and capacity which he displayed on this emergency was but ill answered in the sequel; and he very early showed a predilection for weak and dissolute company, , and the vicious indulgences so common to youthful royalty. In his sixteenth year, he married Anne, daughter of the emperor Charles IV, and, soon after, was so injudicious as to take the great seal from Scroop, for refusing to sanction certain extravagant grants of lands to his courtiers. Wars with France and Scotland, and the ambitious intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, disquieted some succeeding years. The favorites of Richard were Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and chancellor, and Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, the latter of whom he created duke of Ireland, with entire sovereignty in that island for life. The duke of Lancaster, being then absent, prosecuting his claim to the crown of Castile, the king's younger uncle, the duke of Gloucester, a prince of popular manners, and unprincipled ambition, became the leader of a formidable opposition, which procured an impeachment of the chancellor, and influenced the parliament so far that it proceeded to strip the king of all authority, and obliged him to sign a commission appointing a council of regency for a year. Being now in his twenty-first year, this measure was very galling to Richard, who, in concert with the duke of Ireland, found means to assemble a council of his friends at Nottingham, where the judges unanimously declared against the legality of the extorted commission. Gloucester, at these proceedings, mustered an army in the vicinity of London, which being ineffectually opposed by a body of forces under the duke of Ireland, several of the king's friends were executed, and the judges who had given their opinion in his favor, were all found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life in Ireland. A reaction was soon produced

by the tyranny of the ascendant party; so that, in 1389, Richard was encouraged to enter the council, and, in a resolute tone, to declare that he was of full age to take the government into his own hands; and, no opposition being ventured upon, he proceeded to turn out the duke of Gloucester and all his adherents. This act he rendered palatable to the nation by publishing a general amnesty, and remitting the grants of money made by the late parliament. Several years of internal tranquillity ensued, which was promoted by the return of the duke of Lancaster, who formed a counterbalance to the influence of the duke of Gloucester; and Richard prudently kept on the best terms with him. By his fondness for low company, by spending his time in conviviality, and amusement with jesters, and persons of mean station and light behavior, the king forfeited the respect of his subjects, while his weak attachment to his favorites placed all things at their disposal, and made a mere cipher of himself. Encouraged by these follies, the duke of Gloucester once more began to exercise his sinister influence, and, the most criminal designs being imputed to him, Richard caused him and his two chief supporters, the earls of Arundel and Warwick, to be arrested. The earl of Arundel was executed, and the earl of Warwick condemned to perpetual banishment. The duke of Gloucester had been sent over to Calais for safe custody, and was there suffocated. A quarrel between the duke of Hereford, son of John of Gaunt, and the duke of Norfolk, was the incidental cause of the revolution which terminated this unsettled reign. The king banished both the dukes-Norfolk for life, and Hereford for ten, afterwards reduced to six years. It was, however, declared that each of them should be duly entitled to any inheritance which might fall to them during their absence; but, on the death of John of Gaunt, in 1399, the unprincipled Richard seized his property as forfeited to the crown. The king having embarked for Ireland, to revenge the death of his cousin, the earl of March, who had been killed in a skirmish with the natives, Henry of Bolingbroke, as the duke of Hereford was now called, made use of this opportunity to land in Yorkshire, with a small body of forces, and, being joined by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and other influential leaders, proceeded southward, at the head of 60,000 men, nominally to recover his duchy of Lancaster. When Richard,

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