His father dying when he was young, he was indebted for his education to the bishop of Arras, who gave him an exhibition at the college of Louis le Grand, at Paris. He completed his youthful studies in a manner creditable to his talents and application, and, at this period, is said to have derived an attachment to republicanism from the lessons of one of his tutors, M. Hérivaux, who was an enthusiastic admirer of the heroes of ancient Greece and Rome. In 1775, when Louis XVI, after his accession to the crown, made his entry into Paris, Robespierre was deputed by his fellow students to present their homage to the new sovereign. Having adopted the law as a profession, he became an advocate of the council of Artois. Previously to the revolution, he was advantageously known, both on account of his professional abilities, and the liberal and enlightened spirit which he exhibited in his conduct and writings. In 1789, he was elected a deputy from the tiers état of the province of Artois to the states-general. In that assembly, he advocated the liberty of the press, and other popular topics of discussion; but his eloquence did not attract much attention, and he attached himself, in the first instance, so closely to Mirabeau, that he acquired the epithet of Le Singe de Mirabeau. At this time, however, he frequented the Jacobin assemblies and clubs of the lower orders, over whom he gained an ascendency, of which he afterwards availed himself to make his way to despotic power. In January, 1791, le spoke repeatedly on criminal legislation; and he subsequently displayed so much moderation in discussions relative to the emigrants and the priests, as led to suspicions that he was actuated by some secret motives. In a speech on the 30th of May, he recommended the abolition of capital punishments. He is said to have been much alarmed at the flight of the king from Paris, and equally rejoiced at his forced return from Varennes; and, from that period, he seems to have used all his influence in overturning the monarchy. His projects now gradually became developed; and, at the tumultuary meeting in the Champ de Mars, July 17, an altar, with the inscription, A celui qui a bien merité de la Patrie, and below it the name of Robespierre, testified his high favor with the people. The closing of the constituent assembly, Sept. 30, afforded him another triumph, when the mob presented him with a garland of oak leaves, and, taking the horses from his carriage, drew him through the streets, exclaiming, "Behold the friend of the people, the great defender of liberty!" It does not appear that he actively interfered in the riot of Aug. 10, 1792, or in the massacres which took place in the prisons of Paris, in the beginning of September; but he was connected with Marat and Danton, of whose crimes, and those of their associates, he had sufficient address to reap the fruits, and, like other tyrants, at length made his instruments his victims. After the execution of the king, in promoting which the Brissotins, or Girondists (q. v.), coöperated with Robespierre and the Jacobins (q. v.), the former were sacrificed to the ascendency of the latter. The Hebertists (see Hébert), who had joined in this work of destruction, were the next victims to the jealousy of the dictator, who had no sooner sent them to the scaffold, with the assistance of Danton and his friends, than he adopted measures for the ruin of that popular demagogue, whom he dreaded as his most dangerous rival. His next measure was to throw the imputation of atheism and irreligion on those whom he had destroyed, and to establish a species of religious worship. Barrère, by his direction, promulgated his new system of worship, and, June 8, 1794, Robespierre in person celebrated what he termed "the feast of the Supreme Being." His power seemed now to be completely established, and the reign of terror was at its height; but his cruel tyranny and mysterious denunciations had alarmed many of those who had been most intimately connected with him, and a conspiracy was formed for his destruction. (See Terrorism.) At this critical juncture, far from acting with the decision which previously marked his conduct, he waited for the attack of his enemies, and secluded himself from the public for more than a month, during which period he is said to have been employed in preparing an elaborate defence of his conduct, to be delivered in the national convention, where he made his appearance for that purpose July 26 (8th Thermidor), 1794. He was indirectly attacked by Bourdon de l'Oise; after which Vadier, Cambon, Billaud-Varennes, and several other members, spoke against him. He now perceived the extent of his danger; and the ensuing night was passed in consultation with St. Just, and others of his most intimate partisans; but their deliberations led to no decisive results. The next day, when they appeared in the convention, Tallien and Billaud openly A accused Robespierre of despotism. tumult ensued, and, amidst cries of Abas le tyran! he in vain endeavored to obtain a hearing. At length a decree of arrest was carried against him; and his brother, and his friends St. Just, Couthon, and Le Bas, were included in it. Robespierre was sent to the Luxembourg prison; but, in the night, he was set free by the keep er, and was conducted to the hall of the commune of Paris, where Henriot, commander of the national guard, Fleuriot, the mayor of Paris, and others of his creatures, had assembled forces for his defence. This was the critical moment; but neither Henriot, nor Robespierre himself, had spirit sufficient to head the mob and lead it against the convention. While they deliberated, their opponents proceeded to action. Barras and others having been appointed commissioners to direct the armed force of the metropolis, they, without difficulty, secured the persons of the fallen tyrant and his associates, who were all guillotined the next day, July 28, 1794. Robespierre endeavored in vain to escape a public execution, by shooting himself with a pistol at the moment of his seizure; but he only fractured his lower jaw, and thus subjected himself to protracted suffering, which excited no compassion. Of the wretches who disgraced the revolution, Robespierre was the most notorious, but not the most infamous. He did not court the dregs of the people, like Marat; he amassed no money. He was politically insane, and was not, moreover, the author of all the enormities with which he has been charged. Among his colleagues of the committees, and especially those who were sent into the departments, many exercised cruelties which far exceeded their instructions. Those who contributed most to his overthrow, and were loudest in their accusations against him, had profited by his crimes, in which they were deeply involved; and, like the scape-goat of the Jews, he was charged with the sins of the whole nation, or rather of the Jacobin government. In the Memorial from St. Helena, Napoleon is stated to have said that Robespierre displayed in his conduct more extensive and enlightened views than have been generally ascribed to him; and that he intended to reestablish order, after he had overturned the contending factions; but, not being powerful enough to arrest the progress of the revolution, he suffered himself to be carried away by the torrent, as was the case with all before Napoleon himself, who engaged in a similar attempt. As a proof of this, the emperor asserted that, when with the army at Nice, he had seen in the hands of the brother of Maximilian Robespierre letters, in which he expressed an intention to put an end to the reign of terror. On the whole, it is reasonable to conclude that something like principle and genuine enthusiasm guided this hateful and unhappy man in the first instance; but, wholly unable to govern the elements of wild disorder afloat around him, the characteristic cruelty of perplexed cowardice at length became his only instrument, either of action or self-defence. However stimulated, his career exhibits one of the most signal instances of cruelty upon record. Among the published works of Robespierre are, Plaidoyer pour le Sieur Vissery, in favor of the right of setting up electrical conductors against lightning (1783, 8vo.); Discours couronné par la Soc. Roy. de Metz sur les Peines infamantes (1785, 8vo.); Eloge de Gresset, in which the author displays an attachment to monarchical government and religious institutions; Eloge de Prés. Dupaty; and a political journal, called Le Défenseur de la Constitution. The Mémoires of Riouffe, and the Papiers trouvés chez Robespierre, &c., contain much curious information concerning him.* ROBIN, AMERICAN, or MIGRATING THRUSH (turdus migratorius, Lin.); specific character, dark ash-color; beneath rufous; head and tail black; the two exterior feathers of the latter white at the inner tip. The robin is found in summer throughout North America, from the desolate regions of Hudson's bay, in the fifty-third degree, to the table-land of Mexico. These birds retire from higher latitudes only as their food begins to fail, and they make their appearance in Massachusetts, feeding on winter berries, till driven to the south by inundating snows At this season, they are numerous in the Southern States. Even in the vicinity of Boston, flocks of robins are sometimes seen assembling round the open springs in the depth of winter. Towards the close of January, the robin, in South Carolina, still tunes his song, and about the second week of March begins to appear in the Middle States. By the 10th of that month, they may also be heard in Massachusetts. Their nests are often seen on the horizontal branch of an appletree, or in a bush or tree in the woods, and so large as seldom to be wholly concealed. The eggs, about five, are of a *The sister of Robespierre still enjoys a pension from the French government. bluish-green, and without spots. To avoid the attacks of the cuckoo, the robin, says Mr. Nuttall (see his Ornithology, from which these remarks are taken), has been known to build his nest within a few yards of the blacksmith's anvil, and even in the stern timbers of an unfinished vessel, in which men were constantly at work, and to take the materials of his nest from the pine shavings on the carpenter's bench. They raise several broods in a season. They seem content in a cage, sing well, and readily learn lively parts of tunes, and have even been taught "Old Hundred." They also, in this situation, imitate the notes of most of the birds about them. ROBIN GOODFELLOW. (See Browny.) of the university, and other persons belonging to the established church; and he received offers of promotion if he would become a conformist, which he declined. In 1774, he published a translation of the sermons of Saurin, with memoirs of the reformation in France, and the life of Saurin. In 1776, was published his Plea for the Divinity of Jesus Christ, &c. Among his other works are his Plan of Lectures on Non-conformity; the General Doctrine of Toleration; Slavery inconsistent with Christianity; and Sixteen Discourses, which had been delivered extempore to illiterate audiences in the vicinity of Cambridge. These were very liberal on doctrinal points; and his tendency to Unitarian principles soon became known, although he still continued his ministerial labors at Cambridge. He died in 1790, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. ROBINSON, Frederic. (See Goderich, Lord.) ROBINSON, John, minister of the English church in Holland, to which the first settlers of New England belor.ged, was born in Great Britain, in 1575, and edu- ROBINSON CRUSOE. This celebrated cated at Cambridge. He for some time romance, written by the well-known Deheld a benefice in the established church, foe (q. v.), was published in 1719, under but, in 1602, became pastor of a dissent- the title of the Life and surprising Advening congregation in the north of England, tures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariand, in consequence of persecution, went ner, who lived eight and twenty Years with them to Holland in 1608. After a all alone, &c., written by himself. The short residence at Amsterdam, they re- favorable reception this attempt met with moved to Leyden. His talents and repu- induced the author to pursue the subject, tation were such, that he held a public and, a few months later, appeared the disputation with Episcopius in 1613. A Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, part of his church emigrated to Plymouth being the second and last Part of his Life, in 1620, and it was his intention to follow &c. It was with difficulty that the authem with the remainder; but his sudden thor could at first get any of the trade to death, March 1, 1625, prevented. He was undertake the publication of this work, distinguished for learning, liberality and which has since appeared under an alpiety. most endless variety of forms, and in almost all languages, and has been the delight of childhood no less than the amusement of those of mature years. there ever any thing written by mere man," says doctor Johnson, "that was wished longer by its readers, excepting Don Quixote, Robinson Crusoe, and the Pilgrim's Progress?" "There is one book," says Rousseau, "which shall long form the whole library of Emile, and which shall preserve a high rank to the last: it is not Aristotle, nor Pliny, nor Buffon: it is Robinson Crusoe." Its fine sentiments, its pure morality, its practical good sense, and its religious character, united with its simplicity, truth of description, and natural and lively delineations of the passions, combine to give it the charm of fiction and the air and weight of reality. A third part, intended as a vehicle for fuller moral and religious instruction, appeared under the title Serious ROBINSON, Robert, an eminent dissenting divine, was born in Norfolk, in 1735, and educated at a grammar-school in his native county; but, owing to the loss of his father, and the humble circumstances of his mother, he was apprenticed, at the age of fourteen, to a hair-dresser in London. Having attached himself to George Whitefield, he became a preacher among the Calvinistic Methodists, but subsequently relinquished his connexion with the Methodists, and established an independent congregation at Norwich, over which he presided. He was afterwards chosen pastor to a small Anabaptist congregation at Cambridge, and retained this situation during the remainder of his life. In 1773, he removed to Chesterton, near Cambridge, where he engaged in trade as a farmer, corn-dealer and coal-merchant. His learning and abilities procured him much respect from the members "Was Reflections during the Life and surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, by himself (1722). The work was immediately translated into French, and, soon after, into other languages; and various imitations appeared, both in English and in other languages. The rifacimento of Campe, in German, is much used on the continent (translated into Spanish, French, Italian, Latin, &c.), and has been turned into English. The best English editions are those of Chalmers, with a life of Defoe (1790, 2 vols., 8vo.); the academic edition of Mawman (1815), with geographical and nautical notes; and the edition of Cadell and Davies (1820, 2 vols.), with engravings by Heath. The story of Defoe's fraudulently using the papers of a Scotch mariner, by the name of Selkirk, in the composition of his book, is without foundation. He took the hint, doubtless, from Selkirk's adventures, as Shakspeare borrowed Hamlet, Macbeth, or Romeo and Juliet, from Scotch and Danish chronicles or Italian ballads. The real story of Selkirk is as follows: He was a Scottish sailor, who passed some years alone on the island of Juan Fernandez, and was a native of Largo, in Fifeshire. In 1703, he sailed as master in the Cinque Ports privateer, under captain Stradling. In consequence of some difference with his commander, he went ashore at Juan Fernandez, and remained in his solitude till he was taken away by captain Woods Rogers, in January, 1709. Some account of his residence was published by Steele in the Englishman (No. 26), and in Rogers's Voyage round the World (1712); but there is no reason to believe that he had any papers, or journal of any sort.-See Howell's Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk (Edinburgh, 1829); and Wilson's Life of Defoe (3 vols., 8vo., 1830). ROB-ROY (that is, Robert the Red); a celebrated Highland chief, whose true name was Robert Macgregor, but who assumed that of Campbell, on account of the outlawry of the clan Macgregor by the Scotch parliament, in 1662. He was born about 1660. His mother was a Campbell of Glenlyon, and his wife, Helen, a Campbell of Glenfalloch. Like other Highland gentlemen, Rob-Roy was a drover previous to the rebellion of 1715, in which he joined the adherents of the pretender. (See Stuart, James Edward.) On the suppression of the rebellion, the duke of Montrose, with whom Rob-Roy had previously had a quarrel, took the opportunity to deprive him of his estates; and the latter began to indemnify himself by a war of reprisals upon the property of the duke. An English garrison was stationed at Inversnaid, near Aberfoyle, the clachan (residence) of Rob-Roy; but his activity and courage saved him from the hands of his enemies, from whom he continued for some time to levy black-mail. He died in 1743. (See Highlands.) His fortunes and those of his clan form the subjects of Rob-Roy and the Legend of Montrose. ROCAMBOLE (allium scorodoprasum); a species of onion, having bulbs resembling those of the garlic; but the cloves are smaller. It is cultivated for the same purposes, and is considered as having a more delicate flavor. ROCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptiste Donation de Vimeur, comte de, marshal of France, born at Vendome, in 1725, entered the army at the age of sixteen, and served in Germany under marshal Broglio. In 1746, he became aid-de-camp to Louis Philip, duke of Orleans; and afterwards, obtaining the command of the regiment of La Marche, distinguished himself at the battle of Lafeldt, where he was wounded; obtained fresh laurels at Creveldt, Minden, Corbach and Clostercamp; and, having been made lieutenant-general, was, in 1780, sent with an army of 6000 men to the assistance of the U. States of America. Having embarked in Rhode Island, he acted in concert with Washington, first against Clinton, in New York, and then against Cornwallis, rendering important services at the siege of Yorktown (q. v.), which were rewarded by a present of two cannons taken from lord Cornwallis. After the revolution, Rochambeau was raised to the rank of a marshal by Louis XVI, and he was appointed to the command of the army of the north. He was soon superseded by more active officers, and, being calumniated by the popular journalists, he addressed to the legislative assembly a vindication of his conduct. A decree of approbation was consequently passed in May, 1792, and he retired to his estate, near Vendome, with a determination to interfere no more with public affairs. He was subsequently arrested, and narrowly escaped suffering death under the tyranny of Robespierre. In 1803, he was presented to Bonaparte, who, in the year following, gave him a pension, and the cross of grand officer of the legion of honor. His death took place in 1807. His Mémoires were published in 1809 (8vo.). Robin's Voyage dans l'Amérique Septentrionale (1782) con tains some important details concerning placed himself at their head, and led them Rochambeau's campaign in the United States. ROCHECHOUART. (See Montespan.) ROCHEFOUCAULD, François, duke de la, prince of Marsillac, a wit and nobleman of the reign of Louis XIV, was born in 1613. He distinguished himself as the most brilliant nobleman about the court, and by his share in the good graces of the celebrated duchess of Longueville, was involved in the civil war of the Fronde. He signalized his courage at the battle of St. Antoine in Paris, and received a shot which for some time deprived him of sight. At a more advanced period, his house was the resort of the best company at Paris, including Boileau, Racine, and the mesdames Sévigné and La Fayette. He died in 1680, in his sixty-eighth year. This nobleman wrote Mémoires de la Régence d'Anne d'Autriche (2 vols., 12mo., 1713), a spirited and faithful representation of that period; but he is chiefly famous for a work, entitled Réflexions et Maximes, founded on the principle that self-love is the foundation of all our actions. ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, François Alexandre Frédéric, duke de la, born in 1747, was a member of the constituent assembly in 1789, after the dissolution of which he took the military command at Rouen, in his capacity of lieutenant-general (1792). After the 10th of August, the duke de Liancourt, as he was then styled, left France, and resided for eighteen months in England. He then travelled through the U. States, whence he returned in 1798, and, after the 18th Brumaire, returned to France, where he devoted himself to the promotion of the useful arts and to benevolent offices. It was through his influence that vaccination was introduced into France. After the restoration, he was created a peer, but, on account of the liberality of his sentiments, was, in 1823 and 1824, excluded from the council of state, and removed from the several boards of which he was a member; among others, of that for the encouragement of vaccination. This venerable philanthropist and patriot, whose last years were persecuted by the intemperate zeal of political bigotry, died at Paris, in 1827, at the age of eightyone years. His life, by his son, was published the same year. His principal work is his Voyage dans les États-Unis (8 vols., 8vo.). ROCHEJAQUELEIN, Henri de la, the hero of Vendée, born at Chatillon, in Poitou, in 1772. The peasants of the neighborhood having risen in the royal cause (1792), he against the republican troops, after a short harangue;-Allons chercher l'ennemi; si je recule, tuez-moi; si j'avance, suivez-moi ; si je meurs, vengez-moi. After gaining sixteen victories in ten months, he fell, at the age of twenty-two years (March 4, 1794), in a single combat with one of the repub lican soldiers. Marie Louise, marchioness de la Rochejaquelein, wife of his elder brother, who fell in Vendee in 1815, has written Memoirs of the War in the Vendée. ROCHELLE, LA; a commercial city of France, in the department of the Lower Charente, on the Atlantic ocean, 100 miles north-west of Bordeaux; lat. 46° 9′ N.; lon. 1° 9′ W.; population, 17,500. It is well built, and strongly fortified (by Vauban), and contains many handsome squares and fountains. The harbor is safe and commodious, but is accessible for large vessels only at high water. The Place d'armes, or du château, is one of the finest in France. Glass, stone-ware and refined sugar are the principal articles manufactured, and it has a considerable commerce. Rochelle is chiefly remarkable as the stronghold of the French Protestants (see Huguenots) in the times of the house of Valois, and of the first Bourbons. In 1627, it was besieged by Richelieu (q. v.), and was reduced by famine, after a heroic defence, in which 15,000 of the besieged perished. A great number of the inhabitants fled to North America. ROCHELLE SALT. (See Tartaric Acid.) ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, earl of, a witty and profligate nobleman of the court of Charles II, was born in 1648, and, on the death of his father, succeeded him in his titles and estates, the latter of which his extravagance soon dissipated. Having gone through the usual course of academical study at Oxford, he made a tour through France and Italy, and then served in the fleet under lord Sandwich. On his return to England, he rushed into the full vortex of dissipation, and became the personal friend and favorite of his sovereign, who is said to have encouraged and shared many of his exploits. The levity of his disposition frequently brought him into disgrace, and he was more than once forbidden the royal presence: his companionable qualities, however, which made him necessary to the amusement of his master, prevented his occasional exile from being ever of long continuance, His constitution at length gave way unde, such excesses; and, at the age of thirty, he was visited with all the debility of. |