in Spain, translated by Blaquière (London, 1824). The political objects of the expedition, to secure a system of mildness and moderation, were frustrated by the bad faith of the Spanish government. (See France.) In direct violation of the terms of the military capitulations, a persecuting and vindictive policy was adopted towards the former partisans of the constitution. Among the crowds of fugitives were Mina (q. v.), the count del Abisbal, Morillo, &c. Riego was executed, at Madrid, Nov. 6, and on the 13th the king made his entry into the capital on a triumphal car 25 feet high, drawn by 100 men, and amidst the rejoicings of the people. In addition to the evils caused by the excesses of political and religious bigotry, the bad credit of the government rendered it impossible to raise a loan; and it became necessary to have recourse to the former system of indirect taxes, and even to revive the income tax (frutos civiles). To restrain the violence of party fury, a treaty was concluded with France, stipulating for the maintenance of a French force of 45,000 men in the country, until the Spanish army could be organized; and the debt due to France for the expenses of the French expedition was fixed at 34,000,000 francs. At the same time, the Spanish government invited the great powers to hold a congress in Paris, on the subject of the Spanish American colonies; but the opposition of England prevented the execution of this project. February 9, 1824, Spain, therefore, opened the ports of her American colonies, as she continued to call them, to the subjects of all friendly powers. The personal moderation of the king towards the constitutionalists led to the formation of a plot by the absolutists, to compel him to abdicate, and to raise don Carlos to the throne (thence their name of Carlistas). The introduction of the inquisition was successfully resisted by the moderate party, supported by the French, and was pronounced inexpedient and impolitic even by the pope. The decree of amnesty finally appeared, May 1, 1824, but contained so many exceptions that those who were to enjoy its benefits seemed rather to form the exception than the rule. The year 1825 was disturbed by several insurrections of the Carlists, which were attended with numerous executions; and the frequent changes of ministry which occurred at this period show the weakness of the government. The independence of the colonies was acknowledged by foreign powers, and the general interruption of commerce and industry, with the flight

of many persons of property, occasioned much distress. The disturbances continued during the subsequent years, attended with the same marks of feebleness on the part of the government, and a continuance of the general distress. In 1827, Spanish subjects were permitted to trade with the Spanish American republics, but under foreign flags; and in the following year Spain was evacuated by the French troops. The fort of St. Juan de Ulloa, near Vera Cruz, was lost November 22, 1825, and Callao, near Lima—the last post on the American continent in the possession of Spain-January 22, 1826. The foolish and ill-concerted expedition against Mexico was terminated by the surrender of Barradas to Santa Aña (q. v.), in September, 1829. The French revolution of 1830, although it excited some Spanish patriots in exile* to attempt to awaken their countrymen to a struggle for more liberal institutions, had little effect on the people at large. There is, in fact, no liberal party left in Spain: the sword, the scaffold, exile, and the dungeon, have devoured or dispersed the unhappy constitutionalists; and the troubles of which we have spoken above, were produced by the struggles of the more or less absolute of the absolutists, the former having been favored by the views of don Carlos, then heir presumptive to the throne, and the latter by the king. The birth of a royal princess, in 1830, has-in consequence of a royal decree of March 29, 1830, rendering the crown hereditary in the female line, in default of male heirs changed the relation of the prince to the throne. For the history of Spain, see Mariana's Historia General de España (to 1612); Bossi's Storia della Spagna Antica e Moderna (Milan, 1822, seq.); Robertson's Charles V; Watson's Lives of Philip II and Philip III; Sempère's Considérations sur la Grandeur et la Décadence de la Monarchie Espagnole (Paris, 1826), &c.; Southey's History of the War in the Peninsula; Napier's work on the same subject; Foy's Hist. de la Guerre de la Peninsule (Paris, 1827); History of Spain and Portugal, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia (London, 1831).

Spanish Language, Poetry, Literature and Art. To understand these subjects, it will be necessary to say a few words respecting the character and situation of the Spaniard. Nature has given him a beau

general Torrijos, who entered Spain, with a few *One of the most distinguished of these was companions, for the purpose of stirring up the people, but failed, was taken, and executed.

tiful country, the excellences of which were acknowledged even by the Romans. Claudian says, Dives equis, frugum facilis, pretiosa metallis. On account of the situation of Spain, separated from the rest of Europe, the character of the people developed itself, in a great degree, independently of the influences of other nations-a case the reverse of that which has prevailed in Italy, lying, like Spain, beneath a southern sun, but always visited by all the nations of Europe. Gravity, fire, national pride, originality, became characteristic traits of the Spaniards, whose peculiarities were heightened at a later period by their mixture with the Moors-a gallant and chivalrous people and by a struggle of 700 years against the Crescent, whence originated their peculiar mixture of romantic spirit and religious fervor, not unfrequently rising to fanaticism. The Spaniard is brave, provided his soul is in his cause; but when he becomes excited, he is also cruel, and shows the untamed spirit of the African. The conquest of America affords a dreadful example of what he is capable under the influence of religious hatred, pride and avarice. The deep earnestness of the Spanish character made it capable of carrying chivalry to the highest degree of developement; and, with all his pride and exquisite sense of honor, the Spaniard has been famous for unconditional submission to the fair, the church, and the king, and could even endure the horrid fetters of the inquisition. The ease of obtaining the necessaries of life in a country so highly favored by nature, and the wretched government under which it has labored for a long series of years, are the reasons why industry is much neglected, so that thousands suffer from want. The government is extremely poor, and the country very thinly peopled, compared with other countries in the south of Europe. The Spaniard dislikes to adopt foreign manners, and fights with obstinacy if his national pride is offended. The ancient Celts, before the times of the Romans, carried on wars with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. The Romans then colonized the country. The Visigoths conquered it in the fifth century, The unfortunate struggle of their descendants against the Moors, in the eighth century, obliged them to retire into the mountains and to the sea-shore, where, however, they soon acquired new strength, until, after a contest of seven hundred years, they again delivered their country. -The oldest language of the country was

that of the ancient Cantabrians, which may yet exist in the Basque language, spoken by the people of the Pyrenees. This, perhaps already enriched by Phonician and Carthaginian words, was followed by the Latin during the Roman sway; and Spain gave to Rome herself her best writer on eloquence-Quinetilian. Under the Visigoths, however, there grew up in Spain a romanzo or remance dialect, yet without extinguishing the Latin before the invasion of the Moors, and without having an opportunity to develope itself much. When the Moors conquered most of Spain, they treated the inhabitants generously; and the Moorish dialect, then already a fine one, and much cultivated for the purposes of poetry, was soon adopted by the people, and within a short time was fluently spoken every where. But in the small kingdoms which originated during the struggle with the Moors, in the mountainous districts and on the sea-shore, the romanzo again gained ground with the victories of the people. The descendants of the Visigoths had retired before the Moors, leaving them in possession of the greatest part of the country, and confining themselves to the shores of the Atlantic ocean, to the mountains of the regious subsequently called Asturia, Galicia and Biscay, to the chain of the Pyrenees, and the territories of Navarre and Arragon; and a number of small principalities were formed, all united against the Moors, but, from jealousy and other causes, often at war with each other when not contending against the common enemy. The kingdom of Leon, originally including the whole of what was afterwards called Portugal, became very powerful, and Arragon was the centre of the most vigorous resistance to the Moors. Between

the two lay Old and New Castile, Navarre, Catalonia, Valencia, &c. Among the latter, Castile, including the greatest part of the north-west of Spain, having become independent, attained to the highest power, and surpassed even Arragon, with which, after the expulsion of the Moors in the fifteenth century, under Ferdinand, it was permanently united by his marriage with Isabella. This division of Spain naturally had an effect on the Spanish language; and, during the period of the struggle with the Moors, we find as many dialects of the Spanish romanzo as Spanish kingdoms. These dialects, however, became blended with each other, on the gradual union of these kingdoms. The romanzo became developed at an

carly period, peculiarly on the coasts of Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Portugal as far as Galicia, where it even took the name of Galician language. The Galician language, at a later period, developed itself into the Portuguese-an idiom which vies with the Castilian. The Catalonian dialect flourished in the time of the Troubadours, and continued, after having spread to the kingdom of Arragon, as long as Provençal poetry existed in Spain. But it was entirely superseded by its neighbor, the Castilian dialect, when Arragon and Castile were united under one sceptre. In the heart of Spain, the provinces of Asturia and Leon, which were subjected to the new sceptre, now gave rise, during the struggle against the Moors, to a kingdom which was destined, by its situation, to exercise a commanding influence in the peninsula, viz. the kingdom of the two Castiles. The mountains of Castile were inhabited by a valiant race, among whom the Spanish character was most developed. Here the Castilian poetry and language grew up, and soon obtained the predominance over the poetry and language of the neighboring Catalonia, which was at last united to Castile. But the Portuguese dialect remained, because Portugal, as early as the twelfth century, formed a separate kingdom. The Castilian language came to be considered as the standard Spanish, and became the idiom of the court and the learned, whilst the other languages sunk into mere dialects of the common people. Thus we find, at last, but three chief divisions in the Spanish romanzo, of which, however, the third-the Catalonian-has not come down to us; and we may confine ourselves, therefore, at present, to the consideration of the Castilian. Every romance language is a mixture of Germanic languages with the Latin, and each of them received a peculiar character from the nature of the country and of the conquering tribes, from political relations and other circumstances. The dialect of Spain became deeply imbued with the Oriental element, in consequence of the influence of the Moors, who were much more cultivated than the conquered people. The Castilian idiom originated in the mountains of the interior of Spain, and, like that of the Doric mountaineers among the Greeks, was characterized by deep and open tones, which now distinguish the Spanish from the Portuguese. The latter we may compare to the Ionic dialect in the Greek language. The Spanish abounds in full-sounding vowels, and ev

ery discourse is filled with assonances. Its rhyme is the most natural and most perfect to be found in the modern European languages. The Spanish gutturals indicate, perhaps, the Teutonic and Moorish elements. The language is peculiarly fitted to express the dignified and the pathetic. Not unfrequently its solemn dignity seduces the Spaniard into bombast. The poetry, the fine arts and general literature of a nation bear the stamp of its peculiarities. Few are the nations among whom these have flourished equally. The Spanish people is decidedly poetical. In works of eloquence, both religious and secular, no language is so poor as the Spanish, though, in some respects, finely adapted for them. As to architecture, Spain may, perhaps, have exercised an important influence, in consequence of the contact into which the Moorish and Gothic architecture were brought in this country. Gothic architecture, indeed, has sprung from the whole spirit of the modern Christian nations, and belongs much more to Germany than to Spain, Italy and England; but it is very probable that what is called the new Gothic architecture developed itself with more beauty and grace in the neighborhood of the light, splendid and rich architecture of the Moors. The innumerable churches of Spain are in the Gothic taste, like the old buildings of Germany and England; and among them are many fine edifices, but not to be compared with the minster of Strasburg, St. Stephen's church at Vienna, or Westminster abbey. One of the most remarkable monuments of Spanish architecture and Spanish greatness is the famous Escurial. (q. v.)-Music, dancing and painting could not be wanting in so poetical a nation. Music was used to accompany their songs and ballads, and every shepherd still knows how to play on his instrument. The dance, so natural to southern nations, acquired a national character in Spain, and, to this day, the Spaniard has many an almost allegorical dance, borrowed from the Moors. Painting and sculpture were used to ornament the churches (Seville, Toledo) and palaces. Madrid has even an Academia de las tres nobles artes, pintura, escultura y architectura, and the royal palace of that city and the Escurial have galleries; but there is no proper Spanish school of reputation in either of these arts. Yet we cannot pass by the names of the painters Velasquez, Murillo, Zusbaran, L. de Vargas. The art of dramatic representation never reached

a high degree of perfection in Spain. We therefore proceed to the poetry. In general, it may be observed that the spirit of the Spanish poetry is found, likewise, in the Portuguese. Both are the representatives of a peculiar species of romantic poetry. The time when Spanish poetry began to flourish coincides with the origin of the Italian epic, being just at the period when the Provençal poetry expired, in the middle of the fourteenth century. If we consider the time of the Troubadours as the infancy of the modern poetry of Southern Europe, the Spanish poetry, and the Italian, which begins with Dante, form the adult age. The age of the Provençal poetry could not last long in Spain. The life of the Spaniard, filled with battle and toil, was too grave to allow him to be satisfied with poetry of so gay, and often trifling a character. Only at the court of Arragon, and for a short time at that of the king of Castile, there were courts of love and wandering minstrels. The more Castile extended its power from the centre of Spain, the more did the Provençal poetry retire from Arragon, Catalonia and Valencia to France. Castilian poetry began with the ballad, passed over to the romance, and reached its highest point in the drama, and in each of these departments always remained of a decidedly romantic character. Spanish poetry differs from the Italian by a peculiar mixture of romantic fervor, frequently of an Oriental kind, with deep gravity. The Moors may have added to this spirit, besides having introduced into Spanish fiction the fairy world of the East. Spanish poetry proceeds always with a solemn pace. Its plays of wit are heavy, and its fondness for allegory excessive. The perfection of the intrigue is one of the great merits of Spanish writers, and they have served as models to the rest of Europe. A great peculiarity of Spanish versification is found in the redondillas, which became not only the standing metre of the ballad, but also of the drama, and in the assonances, which the Spaniards carried to the highest perfection. Redondillas, in their later form, are strophes of four lines in trochaic verses, mostly of four feet, and are peculiarly adapted for Spanish poetry. In the Spanish sonnets, prior to the connexion with Italy, they assumed the most popular character. The rhyme alone did not satisfy the writers, but the assonance was carried through whole lines. The song was the natural growth of the warlike period of Spain, and served to com

memorate martial exploits. No language has such a store of ballads as the Španish; but they are, particularly the earlier ones, little more than simple, childlike relations of chivalrous deeds. They may be properly divided into the chival rous (derived especially from the fabulous history of Charlemagne, in which are mingled also tales of Moorish and Spanish heroes as don Gayferos, the Moorish Calaynos, count Alarcos, &c. and the historical: of the latter kind, an endless number originated during the struggle with the Moors. After those which belong to the early times of these conflicts, in the ninth and tenth centuries, there arose the brilliant ballads relating to the Cid (q. v.), the hero of the first Castilian king, Ferdinand. Their nature is fully exhibited to us in probably the earliest poem of length relating to this subject which has been preserved, El Poema de Cid-a story whose simplicity and poetic coloring are very striking." It is nothing more, and, in this early childhood of Spanish poetry, could be nothing more. than a long historical Spanish ballad, without any plot. The language is often very old Castilian, and the verse, which is considered by many as Alexandrine, though it cannot properly be so called, on arcount of its great want of precision, is truly iambic. It belongs, according to a conjecture, to the twelfth century, and is much superior to the Poema de Alexandro Magno, which is of nearly equal antiquity, and to the rhymed prayers, legends, and rules of religious orders, by the Benedictine monk Gonzalo Berceo. In connexion with these ballads should be read those which are taken from the history of the Moors, of which many are found in the Historia de los Vandos de los Zegris y Abencerrages, which is itself a sort of romantic chronicle of the Moorish heroes. There are also a number of Spanish ballads, founded on various popular stories. Little different from the ballad was the song; and perhaps the whole difference, especially in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, consisted in this, that the song was divided into couplets or small strophes. Subsequently the song became more lyrical; and then arose the canciones, properly so called (in twelve lines, similar to the madrigal and the epigram), the kindred species of villancicos (stanzas of seven lines), and the poetical paraphrases of known songs and ballads, in which the old songs were interwoven, line by line, with the words unchanged. Spain is distinguished above other countries for

having united the greatest part of her ballads and songs in large collections, and thus preserved them to posterity; and the only thing to be regretted is, that the date and the author are not generally given. Thus there is a great collection of ballads made in the sixteenth century, called Romancero general (by Miguel de Madrigal, 1604, and Petro de Flores, 1614), and an older one, Cancionero de Romances, &c. (Antwerp, 1555). The songs are to be found in the Cancionero general of Fernando del Castillo, which belongs to the commencement of the sixteenth century, and was preceded by a Cancionero de Poetas Antiguos, in the reign of John II. Here we should mention the Silva de Romances viejos, publicada par Jac. Grimm (Vienna, 1815), and Collections of the best old Spanish historical, chivalrous and Moorish Ballads, arranged with notes, by Depping (Altenb. and Leipsic, 1817). Spain, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, reached its greatest clevation; and when the grandson of Ferdinand the Catholic, Charles V, united the German imperial throne with the Spanish, and was powerful in Italy, Spain became so flourishing that his successor Philip could lavish, without restraint, the resources of his kingdom, which yet were not consumed until about the end of the seventeenth century, when, after the death of the weak Charles, the Bourbon family ascended the throne. With the prosperity of the monarchy, poetry also flourished. Crowned heads, as Alphonso X, in the thirteenth century, and the Castilian prince don Juan Manuel (who died in 1362), had tried their powers in verse and prose; and Manuel's work, the Count Lucanor, a collection of important rules for the lives of princes, remains a beautiful monument of Spanish refinement in the fourteenth century. The knights themselves, and not, as in other lands, merely monks, had employed themselves in writing chronicles; and the Spanish historical style has hence become more dignified and noble. The pursuits of active life and of literature have been so intimately connected in Spain, that its greatest warriors have been also the most intellectually cultivated, and not unfrequently were distinguished poets. Thus we find, in the fifteenth century, at the court of John II, celebrated as a patron of poetry, the marquis Henry de Villena, who has left the oldest Spanish Art of Poetry, under the title of La gaya Ciencia (the gay science), and, from his knowledge of natural philosophy, almost ac

quired the reputation of a magician; and his yet more celebrated pupil, don Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, marquis of Santillana, author, among other works, of the Doctrinal de Privados (Manual of Favorites), in which the favorite of John II, don Alvaro de Luna, who was executed, relates his transgressions, and enjoins moral truths on the turbulent Castilians. Santillana's letter upon the oldest Spanish poetry is very celebrated. Several others, for instance, Juan de Mena (the Spanish Ennius), who died in 1456, author of the allegoric-historical-didactic poem Las Trecentas (The 300 Stanzas), and Rodriguez del Padron, who, in his songs of love, exchanged his French idiom for the Castilian, received distinguished favors from the above-mentioned king. Attempts were now made in all branches of the art. During the reign of John II, and his celebrated daughter Isabella, the dramatic spirit first prevailed. Yet before the time of Juan de la Enzina, who, about the end of the fifteenth century, composed pastoral dramas (also the author of the Disparates, which is in the ballad form), the marquis de Villena encouraged the writing of allegorical plays, and an unknown author produced the celebrated satirical pastoral dialogue Mingo Rebulgo. Then followed the dramatic romance of Callistus and Melibœa, which was also called a tragi-comedy. Some historical and biographical works of importance appeared at the same time. The Chronicles of the poet Perez de Guzman, and of the high chancellor of Castile, Pedro Lopez de Ayala, have been reprinted in modern times, by the academy of history at Madrid. The History of the Count Pedro Nino de Buelna, by Gutierre Diaz de Games; the History of Alvaro de Luna, by an unknown friend; and the Claros Varones of Fernando de Pulgar, still preserve their reputation. Then commences the period when the whole monarchy was permanently united under Ferdinand the Catholic. Spain and Italy were brought into connexion by the conquest of Naples, under the great captain (el gran capitan) Gonsalvo Fernandez de Cordova; the inquisition, which, restraining the faith of the Spaniards, left freer room to its fancy, was established, and America discovered. Boscan (about the year 1526), nourished by Italian genius, gave Castilian poetry a classic character, by judiciously incorporating in it the excellences of his Italian models. He confined himself to sonnets and songs; but his friend Garcilaso de la Vega (q. v.)