diction (its civil having gone into disuse) that made it so powerful and odious an auxiliary of a despotic administration. Its process was summary, and often iniquitous, and the punishment which it inflicted, often arbitrary and cruel. It became particularly violent in the reign of Charles I; and it was abolished, with the no less hateful high commission court, by the long parliament, in 1641. Its fall was an important step in the progress of English liberty.

STARBOARD; the right side of a ship, when the eye is directed forward.

STARCH is a white, insipid, vegetable substance, insoluble in cold water, but forming a jelly with boiling water. It exists chiefly in the white and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly in tuberose roots, and the seeds of gramineous plants. It may be extracted by pounding these parts, and agitating them in cold water, when the fibrous parts will first subside, after which the starch will gradually precipitate itself in a fine white powder; or the pounded or grated substance (as the roots of arum, potatoes, acorns, or horse-chestnuts, for instance) may be put into a hair-sieve, and the starch washed through with cold water, leaving the grosser matters behind. Farinaceous seeds may be ground and treated in a similar manner. Oily seeds require to have the oil expressed from them before the farina is extracted. In starchmaking, the farina ferments and becomes sour; but the starch that does not undergo fermentation is rendered more pure by this process. Some water, already soured, is mixed with the flour and water, which regulates the fermentation, and presents the mixture from becoming putrid; and in this state it is left about ten days in summer, and fifteen in winter, before the scum is removed and the water poured off. The starch is then washed out from the bran, and dried, first in the open air, and finally in an oven. When starch is triturated with iodine, it forms combinations of various colors. When the proportions of iodine are small, these compounds are violet; when somewhat greater, blue; and when still greater, black. We can always obtain the finest blue color by treating starch with an excess of iodine, dissolving the compound in liquid potash, and precipitating by a vegetable acid. The color is manifested even at the instant of pouring water of iodine into a liquid which contains starch diffused through it. Hence iodine becomes an excellent test for detecting

starch, and starch for detecting iodine. Starch is convertible into sugar by dilute sulphuric acid. To produce this change, we must take 2000 parts of starch, diffuse them in 8000 parts of water, containing 40 parts of strong sulphuric acid, and boil the mixture for thirty-six hours in a basin of silver or lead, taking care to stir the materials with a wooden rod, during the first hour of ebullition. At the end of this time, the mass, having become liquid, does not require to be stirred, except at intervals. In proportion as the water evaporates, it ought to be replaced. When the liquor has been sufficiently boiled, chalk and animal charcoal are added, and it is clarified with white of egg. The whole is then filtered through a flock of wool, and the clear liquid is concentrated, till it has acquired a sirupy consistence. After this, the basin is removed from the fire, in order, that, by cooling, its sulphate of lime may be precipitated. The pure sirup is now decanted, and evaporated to the proper dryness. It is found, also, that sugar may be obtained from starch without the use of sulphuric acid. It is obtained by leaving the starch, first brought to the pulpy state, to itself, either with or without the contact of the air, or by mixing it with dried gluten. At the same time, however, other products are obtained; viz. 1. a gum like that from roasted starch; 2. amydine, a body whose properties are intermediate between those of starch and gum; and, 3. an insoluble substance, like ligneous matter. Twelve parts of boiling water and one of starch, fermented by dry gluten, yielded,

in the action. The loss of the Americans did not exceed one hundred. Congress passed a resolve of thanks to general Stark and his men, for their conduct in this action, and appointed him a brigadiergeneral in the army of the U. States. He volunteered his services under general Gates previously to the capitulation of Burgoyne, and was one of the council that arranged the terms of that officer's surrender. In 1778, he conducted the defence of the northern frontier, and served in different quarters till the conclusion of the war. In person, general Stark was of the middle size. He was an excellent soldier, and a citizen of unblemished character. He lived to see his country grow and flourish under the benign system which he had fought to establish; and, having attained the venerable age of ninety-three years and eight months, he was gathered to his departed compatriots on the 8th of May, 1822.

STARLING. (See Appendix, end of this volume.)

STAROSTS, in Poland; those noblemen who were reckoned among the dignitaries of the land (dignitarii terrarum), and who received a castle or landed estate from the crown domains (mensa regia). The starosty was granted only for the life of the occupant, on whose death, however, the king was obliged to grant it anew. Some of the starosts had civil and criminal jurisdiction over a certain district (grod); others (tentuarii) merely enjoyed the revenues of the starosty.

STATE (respublica, civitas, societas civilis); a body politic; an association of men for political ends, the object of which is well expressed in the term commonwealth (i. e. common good). Experience, as well as reason, shows that the isolated individual can attain but very imperfectly the ends of his being, and instinct early led men to form unions, for promoting the good of each by the power of all. Such a union is a state, and may be called the natural condition of man, because essential to the full developement of his faculties. Separated from society, he remains a brute. So true is the ancient definition of man as being a political animal, though it may have been taken, when first used, in too narrow a sense. (See the beginning of the article Slavery.) The right of men to form states being thus obvious from their nature, the next questions which arise are, What is the historical origin of states? and what is the best state, or best government? History shows, that states

have been formed in a great variety of ways, by the violence of one or many, by artifice, by contract, &c. (See the articles Political Institutions, Sovereignty, Estate, Legitimacy; also Communities, Cities, Corporations, Land, property in. As to the other question, that state is the best, which is best adapted to promo the general good; so that the organiz tion of such a state may, and must, differ according to circumstances. This fact is overlooked by those who treat the organization of a state merely as a matter of abstract speculation, and, on the other hand, is often used as a pretext for retaining abuses diametrically opposed to the true objects of political society. It should never be forgotten, that the form of gov ernment, important as it is, is merely means of obtaining the great objects of the state; and the first objects to be provided for are security and good order, to which all forms must be made to yield. These terms include much more than the mere protection of individuals against violence on the part of each other-a sense to which none but despotic governments would limit the words.

STATE ADVOCATE. (See Advocate of the Crown.)

STATEN ISLAND is situated south of the city of New York, the centre of it being distant from the city eleven miles It constitutes the county of Richmond, and is the most southern land belonging to New York. Its length is fourteen miles, and its greatest breadth eight miles. Its southern extremity is in lat. 40° 29′ N.; its western extremity is 18' west longitude from New York; population in 1830, 7084.

STATES-GENERAL. (See Netherlands.) STATES OF THE CHURCH. (See Church, States of the.)

STATICS. (See Dynamics, and Mechanics.)

STATISTICS. The past, in all its extension, belongs to history; the present to geography and statistics. Schlozer (q.v.) said with much truth, "History is statistics in a state of progression; statistics is history at a stand." The subject of statistics is the investigation and exposition of the actual condition of states and nations, in regard to their internal organization and foreign relations. The description of the face of the country belongs to geography. Statistics is often considered in too confined a view, as if it had to treat only of those particulars in the condition of a country which can be reduced to numerical calculation, and exhibited in

tables, such as the number, employments and wealth of the people. The frequent reference to "statistical tables," and the frequent use of the phrase, may be in part the occasion of this. A full, statistical view of the actual condition of a people requires the exhibition, 1. of the physical character of the country and the parts composing it, in regard to situation, boundaries, extent and soil, mountains, woods, rivers, climate; also of the numbers and national diversities of the people; their extraction, languages, &c.; the classes into which they are divided (nobility, free proprietors, bondsmen, slaves, officers, merchants, manufacturers, farmers, mechanics, soldiers, &c.); and their religious differences (the various sects, &c.) 2. of the degree of civilization shown in the state of the useful arts and occupations (agriculture, mechanical and manufacturing industry, commerce); in the institutions for the promotion of the fine arts; in the schools, universities, scientific academies, sale of books, &c.; in the manners of the people, and their conduct in all their important relations, moral, political and religious: 3. of the form of government, whether monarchical or republican, despotic or limited; whether there be a popular representation or an assembly of the estates (q. v.); whether the representation is in one or two chambers; whether the representatives take part in legislation, or merely in the imposition of taxes; whether there is a responsibility of the ministers, and none of the monarch, &c; also of the relations of church and state (whether any exist, and, if so, whether the hierarchical or territorial (q. v.) system prevails; whether there are concordates (q. v.) with Rome); likewise of the family of the monarch, where one exists, the age, religion, &c., of the members, the family laws of the ruling house, the court, and the laws relating to it, the military orders, &c.: 4. of the administration of the state (including all the temporal and spiritual authorities, &c., in particular the departments of justice, police, finances, the army and navy). In treating of the foreign relations of the state, this science shows, 1. the standing of the particular state (if it be in Europe) as to the other members of the European family, whether it be a power of first, second, third or fourth rank, and particularly its relations to its immediate neighbors (thus, in treating of German states, it would show their relations to the whole confederacy; so likewise with the Helvetic cantons and the American states): 2.

the reciprocal influence of its domestic and foreign politics: 3. of the existing treaties with foreign states, indicating the sources of information respecting them, their most important points, and their beneficial or injurious consequences. According to the example of some distinguished statistical writers (e. g. Hassel, in the statistics of Austria and Russia; Stein, in those of Prussia, and others), a view of the gradual increase or decrease of the state, in respect to extent, population, &c., may be given advantageously. Statistics differ from geography in this respect, that, though many particular facts belong equally to both, yet geography arranges them always on the principle of locality, but statistics with reference to their effect on the general condition of the nation. Thus geography mentions the mountains, rivers, woods, in describing the districts where they are found, or speaks of their distribution, to give a view of the face of the country: statistics treats of them collectively, with a view to their political importance, as affecting the productiveness of the country, favoring or obstructing communication, &c. In a military description, the same subjects would be treated with particular reference to their military importance. Geography treats also of manufactures, commerce, trade, public authorities, universities, schools, seminaries, museums, &c., in describing the places in which they are situated; but statistics combines them, with a view to arrive at scientific results. Statistics, in modern times, has often been mixed with geography, in some cases advantageously to the immediate purpose in view, but in many to the disadvantage of science and sound knowledge. Statistics was first scientifically treated in Germany: Achenwall (q. v.) gave it, in 1749, its name and systematic form. Since his time, it has become more and more separated from geography and history, and has been cultivated independently of them; but even before him, authors had scientifically combined statistical materials; for instance, some Italians, as Sansovino Botero; some Frenchmen, as d'Avity; and particularly Germans, as Conring, Oldenburger, who died in 1678, at Geneva, the author of Thesaurus Rerum publicarum (4 vols., Geneva, 1675); Gastel, in his De Statu publico Europa novissimo (Nuremberg, 1675, folio); Von Zech, in his European Herald (3 vols., Leipsic,1705, folio, in German), and several others; Dutchmen, as De Luca, in his Descriptio Orbis, &c. (Leyden, 1655); and Everhard Otto, in his

Prima Linea Notitia Europa Rerum publicarum (Utrecht, 1762). Following Conring's example, Achenwall delivered university lectures on statistics. His Staatsverfassung der Europäischen Reiche im Grundrisse, passed through seven editions. Several other manuals appeared. To the department of the theory and history of statistics belong Gatterer's Idea of Universal Statistics (Göttingen, 1773); Schlözer's unfinished Theory of Statistics (Göttingen, 1804); Niemann's Sketch of Statistics (Altona, 1807); and a vast number of other works. Among the statistical manuals are Hassel's Complete Manual of the most recent Geography and Statistics, and Stein's Manual of Geography and Statistics (4th ed., 1819). Among the living statistical writers of Italy are Balbi, Quadri and Melch. Gioja. The statistics of crime have been most attended to in France and England. The French writers have paid particular attention to comparative statistics; for example, baron Dupin, a statistical writer of the first order; also the Italian Gioja, in his Filosofia della Statistica (2 vols., 4to., Milan, 1826 et seq.). Meusel published a Literature of Statistics (2d edition, 2 vols., in German). Statistical tables may lead, and have led, to incorrect notions, when the bare results are considered, without reference to the causes and accompanying circumstances, but, when used with due caution, they are of the highest importance. The influence of the study of statistics has been incalculable: it is the test and the basis of the principles of political economy, and has mainly contributed to that knowledge of the condition and interests of nations which distinguishes our time. Every nation will find its interests essentially promoted by cultivating and making public its own statistics; and writers like Dupin are public benefactors. Among the best statistical works are Hassel's Statistical Sketches of all the European States (1805, 2 vols.); his Statistical Tables, comprising a view of all the European States, and some others; his General Geographico-Statistical Lexicon (Weimar, 1827); and his Genealogical, Historical and Statistical Almanac (an annual); Crome's works; Staudlin's Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics (2 vols., Tüb., 1804); Herbin and Peuchet's Statistique de la France (7 vols., Paris, 1803); Dupin's Forces productives et commerciales de la France (Paris, 2d vol., 4to., 1832); Colquhoun's Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London, 1814, 4to.); Dupin's Voyages

dans la Grande-Bretagne (1820); Wickmann and Hassel's works on Russia; and J. H. Schnitzler's Statistique et Itinéraire de la Russie (Paris and Petersburg, 1829); Von Hammer and Lindner's works on Turkey; Bisinger's, Hassel's, Demian's, André's, on Austria; Schwartner's, on Hungary; Mirabeau's, Krug's, Demian's, Stein's, on Prussia; Thaarup's work on Denmark; Pölitz's, on Saxony. There is no complete statistical view of the present condition of the U. States, though such a one would be highly desirable, in order to give other nations correct notions respecting this country. Much valuable information is contained in Warden's Statistical, Political and Historical Account of the United States (3 vols., 8vo., Edinburgh, 1819); Timothy Pitkin's Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States (8vo., New York, 1817); Adam Seybert's Statistical Annals of the U. States (Philadelphia, 1818); William Darby's Historical, Geographical and Statistical View of the United States (Philadelphia, 1828); Watterston and Van Zandt's Tabular Statistical Views of the United States (Washington, 1829); Ouseley's Political Institutions of the United States (1832); and the American Atlas (3d edition, Philadelphia, 1827).

STATIUS, Publius Papinius; a Roman epic poet, born at Naples, in the reign of the emperor Domitian (A. D. 61), and educated by his father, a rhetorician. His principal productions are two epic poems, the Thebais, in twelve books, and the Achilleis, in two books. The last is unfinished. These works are both dedicated to Domitian, whom the adulatory bard ranks among the gods. The style of Statius is bombastic and affected, often exhibiting the art of the declaimer rather than that of the poet; but he attracted general admiration in his own time, and even some modern critics have considered him as inferior only to Virgil. He wrote some shorter poems, called Sylva, which have been distributed into four books; and some of these compositions are eminently beautiful. Statius is supposed to have been destitute of fortune, as he is said to have supported himself by writing for the stage; but none of his dramatic compositions are extant. He died about the hundredth year of the Christian era. Among the best editions of the works of Statius are those of Barthius (1664, 2 vols., 4to.), and the Variorum, Lugd. Bat. (1671, 8vo.); of the Thebais separately, that of Warrington (1778, 2 vols., 12mo.),