and of the Sylvæ, that of Markland (London, 1728, 4to.).

STATUE (from the Latin statua). Statues are divided into ideal and portrait statues (statua iconica: this term also signified a statue of the natural size). The former, in respect to invention, are much superior, and reach the highest point of the art, when, as in Greek antiquity, they represent divine beings, serene, and superior to all sensual impulses. The latter have all the qualities of portraits (q. v.) except coloring. In Greece, such statues were given to those who had been thrice victorious in the Olympic games. Portrait statues seem to have been first set up in Athens to the memory of Harmodius and Aristogiton, the avengers of liberty and destroyers of the Pisistratidæ. At first, the Greeks seem to have made no statues but those of the gods; but, in later times, and especially during the decline of the Roman republic, when servility and adulation became more and more common, a great number of portrait statues were produced. Gods and monarchs were originally represented of a colossal size; and, in general, the size of the statues, with the ancients, had a symbolical meaning. Originally, statues were colored. The Romans called statues in Greek costume, statuæ palliatæ ; in Roman costume, togatæ, &c. There were statue pedestres (on foot), sedentes (sitting), equestres (on horseback), and curules (driving; and these, again, bigatæ, quadrigate, in which way many deities and triumphant generals were represented). Sometimes whole groups were and are exhibited, as the Laocoon; but, in these, the figures were generally distinct, except in those which represented figures intertwined with each other (symplegmata, as in the case of groups of wrestlers). Statues were often used by the ancients to ornament buildings, &c. (As to the material employed, see Plastics, and Sculpture.) The most celebrated statues are mentioned in the article Sculpture.

STATUTE; an act of the legislature of a state; a positive law. Statute is commonly applied to the acts of legislative bodies, consisting of representatives. In monarchies not having representative bodies, the acts of the sovereign are called edicts, decrees, ordinances, rescripts. Statutes are distinguished from common law. The latter owes its force to the principles of justice, to long use, and the consent of a nation; the former to a positive command, or declaration of the supreme power. (For the forms of the passage of bills

through the English parliament and the congress of the U. States, see Parliament, and Congress of the United States.)

STAUBBACH, FALLS OF. (See Cataract.)

STAUDLIN, Charles Frederic, doctor and professor of theology at Göttingen, was born in 1761, at Stuttgart, and early began his History and Spirit of Scepticism, particularly in respect to Morality and Religion (which appeared at Leipsic, 1794). He travelled in Switzerland, France and England, and was appointed professor extraordinarius at Göttingen, in 1790, where he became doctor of theology in 1792. His writings are very numerous, and the latter ones have been charged with the faults often attending too great fertility. He died in 1826. His works are a Manual of the Extent, Method and History of Theological Sciences (Hanover, 1821); Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics (Tubingen, 1804); Contributions to the Elucidation of the Prophets of the Old Testament (Stuttgart, 1786); continuation of the same (Göttingen, 1791); Origin, Contents and Construction of Solomon's Song, in Paulus's Memor; Essay towards a Criticism of the System of the Christian Religion (1791); Sketch of Academical Lectures on Morals and Dogmatics for future Teachers of the Christian Religion (2 vols., 1798-1800); Text-Book of Dogmatics, and the History of Dogmas (3d edition, 1809); Outlines of Philosophical and Biblical Morals (an academical text-book, 1805); New Text-Book of Morals for Theologians, with Introductions to the History of Morals and moral Dogmas (1813); Practical Introduction to the Books of the Sacred Scriptures (1826); a History of the Ideas which have been entertained respecting the Morality of Theatres, the Doctrine of Suicide, Conscience, Oaths (1824), and Friendship (1826); a History of Rationalism (1826); a History of the Ethics of Jesus (4 vols., 1799— 1823); Outlines of a History of Philosophical, Hebrew and Christian Morals (Hanover, 1806); General History of the Christian Church (3d edition, 1823); History of Christian Morals since the Revival of Learning (1808); General Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain (Göttingen, 1819); History of Moral Philosophy (Hanover, 1822); History of the Theological Sciences (2 vols., 1811); History and Literature of Ecclesiastical History (edited by Hemsen, 1827). He edited several periodicals himself, as the Göttingen Library of the latest Theological Literature

(1794-1800); Contributions to the Philosophy and History of Religion and Ethics in general, and of the various Creeds and Churches (1797-99); Magazine for the History of Religion, Morals and the Church (1801-6); Archives of ancient and modern Ecclesiastical History (1813 -20); Archives of Ecclesiastical History, in conjunction with Tzschirner and Vater (vol. i., Halle, 1823). He also wrote a great number of occasional treatises.

STAUFEN. (See Hohenstaufen.) STAUNTON, Sir George Leonard, a traveller and diplomatist, was a native of the county of Galway, in Ireland. He was destined for the medical profession, with a view to which he studied at the university of Montpellier, and took the degree of doctor of physic. About the year 1762, he established himself in practice in the island of Grenada, in the West Indies, where he obtained the patronage of the governor, lord Macartney, who made him his secretary; and he likewise held the office of attorneygeneral of Grenada, till the taking of that island by the French. His lordship, being appointed governor of Madras, took Mr. Staunton with him to the East Indies, where he was employed in the arrest of general Stuart, who had opposed the authority of the governor. He also induced the French admiral Suffren to suspend hostilities before Gondelour, previously to the official announcement of the peace in 1714; and he negotiated a treaty with Tippoo Saib. Returning to England, the East India company repaid his services with a pension of £500 a year; the king created him a baronet, and the university of Oxford bestowed on him the diplonta of doctor of laws. When lord Macartney (q. v.) went as ambassador to China, sir George accompanied him as secretary of legation, with the provisional title of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary. Of that mission, and of the empire and people of China, he published an Account in 1797 (2 vols., 4to.), which was translated into French and German. He died in London, in January, 1801.

STAUNTON, Sir George Thomas, baronet; only son of the preceding, sir George Leonard Staunton, who, having only one child, paid uncommon attention to his education; and the youth was introduced to a knowledge both of the dead and living languages, and of botany, chemistry, &c., much earlier than usual. He was born in 1781, and was only twelve years old when his father was appointed to go to China. Sir George, with his son, in

stantly set off for Rome, where he engaged two native Chinese, of the Propaganda, to return with them to their native country. From these men young Staunton, in the course of the voyage, learned Chinese. On his arrival, he was presented to the emperor, who, seeing so young a man acquainted with his own language, looked on him with surprise, and made him a handsome present. On the return of the embassy, sir George had interest enough with the court of directors to get his son appointed a writer in the factory at Canton and Macao, for which young Mr. Staunton embarked, and resided there many years. During that period, he translated into the Chinese language the History and Progress of Vaccination, which practice has been successfully diffused through that empire. The knowledge of the Chinese language, it had been supposed, would produce to young Staunton great pecuniary advantages; but it was with difficulty the court of directors could be induced to add £500 to his salary as secretary of the Chinese language. Sir George published, in 1810, the Fundamental Laws and Penal Code of China, with an Appendix and Notes. He had risen almost to the head of the Chinese factory, when he returned to England, and then determined not to go any more to China. Sir George has also published the Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars in 1712-15 (1821), a translation from the Chinese; and Miscellaneous Notices relating to China, and the British Commercial Intercourse with that Country (1822), He has also written an Account of Lord Amherst's Embassy to China; and Memoirs of Sir G. L. Staunton, which have been printed, but not published. He has been several times returned to parliament, where he has voted with the tories.

STAUROTIDE; a mineral species, so called from cravos, a cross, in allusion to the regular crossing of its crystals, which so frequently takes place. The primitive form of the crystal is a right rhombic prism of 129° 30', which is rarely modified at its extremities, though its acute lateral edges are usually truncated, converting the crystals into six-sided prisms. The cruciform crystals of this species are of two kinds: in the first, the crystals cross each other at right angles; in the second, at angles of 60° and 120°. Fracture uneven or conchoidal; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous; color reddishbrown, or brownish-red, very dark; streak white; translucent; hardness a little su

perior to that of quartz; specific gravity 3.3 to 3.9. According to an analysis, by Vaquelin, of the variety from Brittany, and another by Klaproth, of the variety from St. Gothard, staurotide consists of

Silex,

Alumine,

Lime,

Magnesia,.

Oxide of iron,

Oxide of manganese,

37.50 11.00 0.00

0.50

1.00 0.50 It assumes a dark color before the blowpipe, but does not melt. Staurotide occurs, for the most part, in mica slate, and is often accompanied by garnet and cyanite. It is found in single crystals on St. Gothard, in Switzerland, and on the Greiner mountain, in Zillerthal, in the Tyrol. It is an abundant substance in the U. States, particularly in the states of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts.

STAY; a large, strong rope, employed to support the mast on the fore part, by extending from its upper end towards the stem of the ship, as the shrouds are extended on each side.

STAYS. (See Corset.)
STEALING. (See Larceny.)

STEAM. When water is exposed to the action of heat, it expands, and assumes the gaseous state called steam. In this condition, it is extremely light and expansible, like air, and, like it, capable of being easily reduced into less space by external pressure, and resisting, like it, the force which thus compresses it. If we introduce a tea-spoonful of water into a large glass globe capable of holding several galTons, and exhausted of its air, and afterwards apply heat to the globe, the water will gradually disappear, so that the vessel will appear perfectly empty; yet it is completely filled with the water, now existing in the state of vapor or steam. By increasing the heat, we augment the expansive force of the vapor; and it may easily be increased so as to shatter the globe to pieces. Water is converted into vapor at all temperatures, even at 32°, or lower; but the elasticity at low temperatures is low; and it increases as the temperature increases, till, at 212°, it is equal to that of the atmosphere, or capable of supporting a column of mercury 30 inches in height. In this condition, it occupies 1689 times the bulk of the water from which it was formed, and has a density expressed by 0.625, that of air being 1. Attempts have been made to represent the increase in the elasticity of steam at increasing temperatures; but they are not

Hence we see that, at the temperature of 419°, water, when converted into steam, expands only thirty-seven times. When such steam comes into the air, it would expand thirty-five times. This would prodigiously increase its specific heat, and of course diminish its temperature. It is probable that, at a temperature not much higher than 500°, the steam of water would not much exceed double the bulk of the water from which it was generated. The expansive force of such steam would be amazing. When issued into the atmosphere, it would undergo an expansion of 650 times its original bulk. We do not know at what temperature water would become vapor without any increase of volume. It would then support a column of mercury 3243 feet in height, and exert a force of 19,459 lbs. upon every square inch of the vessel containing it. Such are some of the principal phenomena of the conversion of water into steam, which has been proved by doctor Black to be owing to the very same cause as the conversion of solids into liquids, namely, to the combination of a certain amount of caloric with that liquid, without any increase of temperature. The truth of this very important point is shown by the following experiments: 1. When a

vessel of water is put upon the fire, the water gradually becomes hotter till it reaches 212°; afterwards its temperature is not increased. Now, heat must be constantly entering from the fire and combining with the water. But as the water does not become hotter, the heat must combine with that part of it which flies off in the form of steam; but the temperature of the steam is only 212°; therefore this additional heat does not increase its temperature. We must conclude, then, that the change of water to steam is owing to the combination of this heat; for it produces no other change. Doctor Black put some water in a tin plate vessel upon a red hot iron. The water was of the temperature 50°; in four minutes it began to boil, and in twenty minutes it was all boiled off. During the first four minutes, it had received 162°, or 40° per minute. If we suppose that it received as much per minute during the whole time of boiling, the caloric which entered into the water, and converted it into steam, would amount to 40X20 810°. This heat is not indicated by the thermometer, for the temperature of steam is only 212°; therefore doctor Black called it latent heat. 2. Water may be heated in a Papin's digester-a cylindrical copper vessel, having a lid nicely fitted to it, and kept fast by screws-to 400° without boiling; because the steam is forcibly compressed, and prevented from making its escape. If the mouth of the vessel be suddenly opened while things are in this state, part of the water rushes out in the form of steam, but the greater part still remains in the form of water, and its temperature instantly sinks to 212°; consequently 188° of heat have suddenly disappeared. This heat must have been carried off by the steam. Now, as only about one fifth of the water is converted into steam, that steam must contain, not only its own 188°, but also the 188° lost by each of the other four parts; i. e. it must contain 188×5, or about 940°. Steam, therefore, is water combined with at least 940° of heat, the presence of which is not indicated by the thermometer. 3. If one part of steam, at 2120, be mixed with nine parts, by weight, of water at 62°, the steam instantly assumes the form of water, and the temperature, after mixture, is 178.6°; consequently, each of the nine parts of water has received 116.6° of caloric, and the steam has lost 9×116.6° 1049.4° of caloric. But as the temperature of the steam is diminished by 33.4°, we must substract this

The number 978, which is the mean of these estimates, cannot be very far from the truth, though doctor Thomson is of opinion that the true number cannot fali below 1000°.

Before we describe the application of steam in the steam-engine, we shall briefly allude to some other useful purposes to which it has been subjected. It has been ascertained that one cubic foot of boiler will heat about 2000 feet of space, in a cotton mill, to an average heat of about 70° or 80° Fahr. It has also been proved that one square foot of surface of steam-pipe is adequate to the warming of 200 cubic feet of space. This quantity is adapted to a well finished, ordinary brick or stone building. Cast-iron pipes are preferable to all others for the diffusion of heat, the pipes being distributed within a few inches of the floor. Steam is also used extensively for drying muslin and calicoes. Large cylinders are filled with it, which, diffusing in the apartment a temperature of 100° or 130°, rapidly dry the suspended cloth. Experience has shown that bright dyed yarns, like scarlet, dried in a common stove heat of 128°, have their color darkened, and acquire a harsh feel; while similar hanks, laid on a steam-pipe heated up to 165°, retain the shade and lustre they possessed in the moist state. Besides, the people who work in steamdrying rooms are healthy, while those who were formerly employed in the stoveheated apartments, became, in a short time, sickly and emaciated. The heating, by steam, of large quantities of water or other liquids, either for baths or manufactures, may be effected in two ways: The steam-pipe may be plunged, with an open end, into the water cistern; or the steam may be diffused around the liquid in the

interval between the wooden vessel and the interior metallic case. The second mode is of universal applicability. Cooking food for man and cattle is another useful application of steam; for it is the most effectual carrier of heat that can be conceived, depositing it only on such bodies as are colder than boiling water. Chambers filled with steam, heated to about 125° Fahr., have been introduced, with advantage, into medicine, under the name of vapor baths. But the most splendid application of steam remains to be described.

As steam possesses the elasticity of air, and as it may be immediately condensed by the application of cold, it is obvious that it may be applied as a moving force, and that it must possess unlimited power. The medium in which it is so applied is called the steam-engine, and constitutes the finest present ever made by science to the arts. It is admitted to have been invented by the marquis of Worcester, though it does not appear that he was ever able to interest the public in his invention, or that he attempted to apply it to any useful purpose. It was reinvented by captain Savary, who took out a patent towards the end of the seventeenth century, and published an account of it, in the year 1696, in a book entitled the Miner's Friend. In Savary's machine, the elasticity of steam was applied directly to force water up a pipe. The waste of steam was so enormous, and the quantity of fuel necessary so great, that it does not appear ever to have been attempted to apply it directly for the purpose of draining water out of mines, which was the object that Savary had in view when he took out his patent. In 1705, a new patent was taken out jointly by captain Savary, Newcommen (q. v.), a blacksmith, at Dartmouth, in Devonshire, and Mr. Crawley, a glazier in the same place. The merit of the machine has been universally ascribed to Newcommen, under whose name it went. It consisted essentially of a metallic cylinder, in which a piston, made air-tight, was capable of moving from the top to the bottom. The top of the cylinder was open, the bottom close. The piston was attached to the piston-rod or chain, which connected it with the end of the working-beam. The workingbeam was supported on a gudgeon, and the end opposite to that to which the piston-rod was attached was loaded, and, of course, the pump-rod attached to it was at the bottom of the well from which the water was to be pumped. The cylinder is filled with steam till all the air is driven

out. The piston was at the top of the cylinder. The steam in the cylinder is condensed by means of a jet of cold water. A vacuum is produced in the cylinder. The atmosphere presses upon the top of the piston, and forces it to the bottom of the cylinder. The pump-rod, at the other end of the working-beam, is drawn up. It makes a stroke, and a quantity of water is pumped out of the well or mine. Steam is again introduced below the piston in the cylinder; the vacuum is removed, and the piston rises to the top in consequence of the load at the other extremity of the workingbeam. The cylinder is filled with steam, as before: this steam is condensed, the piston is forced down, more water is pumped up, and thus the machine continues to act as long as it is supplied with

steam.

The great improvement in the steamengine was made by Mr. Watt, a native of Glasgow, who, accidentally having had his attention directed to the construction of the steam-engine, discovered that water, when confined in a close vessel, and heated considerably beyond the boiling point, would, when the steam was permitted to escape, cool, rapidly, down to the boiling temperature; which suggested an idea that the amount of steam issuing from any vessel was simply in proportion to the amount of heat applied, and that the economizing of fuel could only be obtained by the economizing of steam. He also noticed the great change which took place in the temperature of the cylinder when the cold water was injected to condense the steam, and concluded that, as the coldness of the cylinder would remain after the necessary condensation had been effected, a wasteful condensation of the newly introduced steam must take place. By experiment, he found that the quantity of steam thus wasted was no less than thrice the contents of the cylinder, or three times the quantity which was required for producing the effect sought. The modes to which he had recourse to remedy this defect were, first, the substitution of a wooden cylinder, which, upon repeated trials, he was compelled to abandon, on account of the roughnesses produced by wet and the changes of temperature; secondly, the enclosing of the cylinder with wood, and filling the intermediate space with powdered charcoal, which, afterwards, was superseded by the introduction of an extra cylinder, that enclosed the working cylinder, and permitted steam to flow