ble to give, in a work like the present, a satisfactory sketch of this system, which is very liable to be misunderstood, as it often has been. We can only refer the reader to the works mentioned below. The morality of Spinoza is founded mainly on force and utility.-See Jacobi's work, The Doctrines of Spinoza, in Letters to Mendelssohn (Berlin, 1785; 2d ed., 1789); Moses Mendelssohn's Morning Hours (Berlin, 2d ed. 1786); and To the Friends of Lessing, an Appendix to the Correspondence of Jacobi (Berlin, 1786); also God and Nature, according to the System of Spinoza, by G. K. Heydenreich (Leipsic, 1789), with his Animadversiones in Mosis Mendeli Filii Refutationem, etc. (Leipsic, 1786); also Franke On the modern Fate of Spinozism, and its Influence on Philosophy generally (Sleswic, 1812).

SPONGE (Spongia); a marine production, generally to be met with in the shops in pieces only. Its texture is cavernous and porous. Its great elasticity, and its property of imbibing, and as readily parting with, a large quantity of water, render it useful. Sponge is to be chosen as light as possible, perfectly clean, and free from stone, of as pale a color as may be, with small holes, and fine, and soft to the touch. It grows in the Archipelago, at considerable depths, on the rocks, about some of the islands there; and multitudes of people make a trade of diving for it. It is also common in the Mediterranean and many other seas, though in general browner or yellower, and not so fine as that of the Archipelago. It adheres in large masses to rocks and stones, sometimes to large shells, and is either round, flat, or hollow, like a funnel. There has been much dispute among naturalists concerning the real nature of the sponge; nor is it yet satisfactorily decided whether it belongs to the animal or vegetable kingdom. But it appears to be destitute of irritability as well as of any locomotive power; and some recent writers have maintained that it is during a part of its existence a vegetable, and during the rest an animal. The opinion that sponge is, like coral, the work of a polype, is erroneous. SPOTTED FEVER. (See page 600.) SPRAT, OF SARDINE (clupea sprattus); a small fish, hardly distinguishable, at first sight, from the herring, but smaller and more slender. It is found in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and keeps usually in the depths of the ocean; but during the autumn approaches the shore in vast numbers, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The fishery is very lu

crative, and has become an important branch of commerce in many parts of Europe. Sprats are taken in the same manner as herrings, except that the nets have smaller meshes; but it is necessary to salt them before bringing them to land.

SPRUCE (abies). The spruces are more strictly confined to the north than the pines, and their deep, gloomy forests form a striking feature in the vegetation of the colder parts of North America, Asia and Europe. In the U. States, they become rare south of the forty-second parallel of latitude, and are altogether wanting beyond the fortieth, except on the mountains, while in the upper parts of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, they constitute the greater portion of the entire forest. They are, however, successfully cultivated for ornament inuch farther south. They are distinguished from the pines by their habit, and by their solitary evergreen leaves, deprived of a sheath at the base. The black or double spruce (A. nigra) is very abundant in Lower Canada, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Maine, and the upper parts of New Hampshire and Vermont. It grows to the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a trunk a foot or a foot and a half in diameter; and, as the summit has a regular pyramidal form, a solitary tree makes a beautiful appearance. The timber is distinguished for lightness, strength and elasticity, and furnishes most of the spars used for vessels in the U. States. These spars are exported to the West Indies and to Britain, where they are preferred to those of the Norway spruce; but they are not sufficiently large for the yards of ships of war. Knees for vessels, made from the base of the trunk and one of the principal roots, are much used in Maine, and sometimes also at Boston. The timber is, besides, extensively sawed into boards, which are sold one fourth cheaper than those of the white pine, and are exported to the West Indies and to England.-The red spruce is a mere variety of this timber, produced by a difference in soil. It is chiefly with the young branches of this species that the wholesome drink called spruce beer is prepared.

The white or single spruce (A. alba) inhabits the same districts, but is less abundant. It is a smaller tree, rarely exceeding fifty feet in height, and twelve or sixteen inches in diameter at the base of the trunk. The wood is employed for the same purposes as the preceding, but is inferior in quality. The fibres of the roots are very flexible and tough, and after

maceration in water are used in Canada to stitch together the birch-bark canoes. It is distinguished from the preceding by its less crowded leaves, and their pale green color, and the longer and more cylindrical form of its cones. It is much esteemed in Europe as an ornamental tree, and is frequently cultivated in parks and gardens.-The American silver fir (A. balsamea) is still less than the white spruce, and rarely exceeds forty feet in height. It is a beautiful tree, having the leaves longer than those of the black spruce, and silvery beneath. The cones are four or five inches in length, cylindrical, obtuse and violaceous. The wood is light, but slightly resinous, and is little used. A few bottles of the turpentine are collected and sold under the improper name of balm of Gilead; and this remedy has acquired some celebrity, in England, in certain stages of the pulmonary consumption. This is a favorite ornamental tree in many parts of the U. States.-The hemlock spruce (A. Canadensis) is readily distinguished by having the leaves distichous, or disposed in two ranks, and the cones terminal. It is one of our most beautiful trees, and is particularly valuable for the properties of the bark. (See Hemlock Spruce.) The European firs are more lofty than our own, but the properties of the timber are analogous: that of the Norway spruce (A. communis) is called white deal in England.

SPUNGE. (See Sponge, on page 597.) SQUILL. The officinal squill (scilla maritima of Linnæus) is now referred to the genus ornithogalum. This plant is allied to the onion, which it somewhat resembles: there are six stamens and a single style; the calyx is wanting, and the corolla is deeply divided into six seg ments: the root is a bulb almost as large as a man's head, and similar in form and structure to that of the onion; the stem upright, cylindrical, terminated by a long raceme of white flowers: the leaves appear after the flowers, and are all radical, very large, oval-lanceolate and fleshy. It grows on the sandy coasts of the Mediterranean. The bulb has a nauseous, bitter and acrid taste, but is destitute of any perceptible odor. It is poisonous to several animals, and, if much handled, produces ulcers on the skin. In large doses, it occasions vomiting, strangury, inflammation of the stomach and bowels, &c.; but in small doses, acts simply as an expectorant and diuretic. It has been much esteemed from antiquity, and its various preparations are much used in medicine.

SQUIRREL (sciurus); a genus of quadru peds, belonging to the rodentia, or gnawers, distinguished from most animals of the tribe by the compressed form of the lower incisors. The upper lip is cleft; the fur soft and silky; the molar teeth are four on each side of the lower jaw, and five in the upper, the first of which is only a small tubercle, often shed with age; the incisors are two in each jaw: the toes are armed with hooked nails, by means of which these animals are enabled to climb trees, among the branches of which they pass their lives, feeding on the fruit. Their light and graceful motions, their beauty, and extreme neatness, have made them general favorites. When on the ground, they move by successive leaps, with the tail extended and undulating; but the forest is their home, and they display wonderful activity in leaping from branch to branch, sometimes stopping to listen, sitting erect upon their hinder limbs, with the tail elevated like a plume. In the same posture they take their food, using their fore-feet like hands. The hardest nuts serve them for nutriment, and the facility with which they cut through the shell is remarkable. They build nests of sticks and leaves, in the tops of trees, or sometimes in hollow trunks. Previous to the approach of winter, they lay up large hoards of nuts and grain for future use. When in captivity, they permit themselves to be handled, without ever appearing to distinguish the person who takes care of them, or experiencing any real attachment for him. The species are numerous in the U. States, but at present are not very well understood. In some districts, they multiply so exceedingly as to become a pest to the farmers, literally laying waste the cornfields: the woods and fields seem then to be alive with them, and sometimes they make partial migrations, during which, vast numbers are drowned in crossing rivers.The fox squirrel (S. vulpinus) inhabits, exclusively, the pine forests of the Southern States, and is our largest species. The body is fourteen inches in length, and the tail sixteen. The color is gray and black, or mottled, &c.-S. capistratus is a variety having the nose white. The cat squirrel (S. cinereus) is found in the Northern and Middle States, and is distinguished by its size and by the fur being less coarse in its texture. The length of the body is twelve inches, and of the tail fourteen; the color cinereous above, and white beneath; the tail is less distichous than in the others, and striped with black. There

are four molar teeth only on each side of the upper jaw. The gray squirrel (S. Carolinensis) is still very common in most parts of the U. States, especially in oak, hickory and chestnut forests. Formerly, it was so abundant in many districts as to become a scourge to the inhabitants. It is remarkable for its beauty and activity, and, when kept in confinement, is exceedingly playful and mischievous. It is much smaller than the two preceding; the color is usually fine bluish-gray, mixed with a slight tinge of orange, and the tail is edged with white. These three species often occur entirely black, and in this state have been described as a distinct species. The great-tailed squirrel (S. macrourus) is the most common species on the Missouri. It is a large species, of a ferruginous color, and has the tail larger than the others.-The red squirrel, chick-a-ree, or Hudson's bay squirrel (S. Hudsonius), is a beautiful species, very common in the Northern States. The ears are distinctly tufted; the color is reddish-brown above, pale beneath, with a pretty distinct black line on each flank. It is smaller than the gray squirrel.-S. quadrivittatus is a very small species, inhabiting the vicinity of the Rocky mountains, about the head waters of the Platte and Arkansas. The general color is reddish above, mixed with black, and whitish beneath, with four broad white lines on the back. It has not been observed to ascend trees, but nestles in holes, or on the edges of rocks; and the nest is composed of a most extraordinary quantity of different vegetable substances, sometimes sufficient to fill a cart. Its principal food seems to consist of the seeds of the pine.-The ground squirrel (tamias lysteri) has been separated from sciurus, on account of the presence of cheek-pouches; it differs also, somewhat, in its habits, as it makes a burrow, generally, about the roots of trees, or along fences and walls, often of considerable extent, and having several branches, and always two openings. It is one of the most familiar animals in the U, States, and is usually seen running along fences and walls; but it occasionally ascends trees. On the back are five longitudinal black bands, separated on each side by two white ones. It is a very pretty and lively animal. The common flying squirrel (pteromys volucella) differs from sciurus in having the skin on the sides very loose, and capable of being spread out when the limbs are extended, with the assistance of an additional bone articulated with the wrist. By means of this

structure, the flying squirrels are enabled to make surprising leaps: taking advantage of the wind, they launch into the air, buoyed up as by a parachute, and sail swiftly and obliquely downwards. It is an exceedingly beautiful animal, very common in many parts of the U. States. Another and larger species is found in Canada and about the Rocky mountains. The squirrels of North America are far from being well understood, and, probably, more will be discovered, especially about the Rocky mountains and in the region beyond. It is much to be regretted, that the author of the Fauna of British North America, while waiting at New York for a passage to England, did not avail himself of the opportunity to visit the Philadelphia museum; as much of the confusion respecting the animals brought by the expedition of Lewis and Clarke might then have been removed. Lewis's squirrel (sciurus Lewisii of Hamilton Smith) (see Griffith's Translation of Cuvier) is a marmot (spermophilus, probably the S. Franklinii); Clarke's squirrel of the same author, is also a spermophilus; the nails of these animals are too straight to permit them to ascend trees. There exists, however, in the collection brought by those enterprising travellers, a specimen, apparently a true squirrel, which seems to have escaped the prying eyes of naturalists: it is about as large as the chick-a-ree, and has pretty much the same distribution of colors, except that there is less of the reddish tint, and a considerable portion of the tail is entirely black.

STALACTITES are formed by the filtration of water, containing calcareous particles, through pores or fissures in the roofs of those caverns which are frequent in limestone. The water, having percolated through the roofs, remains suspended in drops. Evaporation commences at the exterior of the drop, and the calcareous particles are deposited on the roof of the cavern in the form of a little ring, which extends by degrees till a small tube is produced. The bore of this tube is, in most cases, diminished by successive deposits, till it becomes entirely closed; and the stalactite then increases by concentric layers applied to the exterior. Thus cylinders or cones are produced, and sometimes so enlarged that they unite with each other. While the stalactite is forming, a part of the water drops from it on the floor of the cavern, or trickles down the sides, and thus produces those calcareous concretions called

stalagmites. When large, they are called alabaster. On the floor, they often form large masses, sometimes rising till they meet the stalactites pendent from the roof, and extending in all directions. A great variety of imitative forms are produced; hence a lively imagination will perceive, in these caverns, representations of the most diverse objects, especially by the light of a candle. The color of stalactites is seldom pure white; it more frequently presents shades of yellow, red, or brown. Among the more remarkable foreign localities of stalactites are the grotto of Antiparos, in the Archipelago; Baumann's cave, in the Hartz; Pool's hole, in Derbyshire; the caves of La Balme, in Savoy; and of Auxelle, in Franche Comté. Fine specimens of alabaster are found in Spain, near Grenada, &c., in Italy, Sicily and Sardinia. The most beautiful alabaster employed by the ancients, is supposed to have been found in Egypt, in mountains west of the Red sea. In the U. States are many caverns containing stalactites.

STAR OF BETHLEHEM (ornithogalum umbellatum). This plant is sometimes called eleven o'clock, from the circumstance of the flowers opening at about that time in the morning. It is allied to, and somewhat resembles, the onion. The root is a bulb; the leaves are linear, and all radical; the stem six or eight inches high, and terminated by a corymb of six or eight white and star-like flowers: these last are very evanescent, and close four or five hours after expansion. The plant grows wild in Europe, and is sometimes cultivated in our gardens for ornament; it is, besides, naturalized in some parts of the U. States.

STARLING (Sturnus). The common European starling, in size and in its habits, somewhat resembles the red-winged blackbird of the U. States. The color is blackish, with blue, purplish, or cupreous reflections, and each feather is marked at the extremity with a whitish speck. The beak is long, straight, entire, somewhat flattened and obtuse at the extremity; the tail shorter than in our blackbirds. It is found in almost all parts of the eastern continent, and, except in the breeding season, lives in numerous flocks, retiring in the evening to marshes, to pass the night among the reeds. The flight of these birds is peculiar: they form a sort of vortex while advancing. During the day time, they disperse throughout the fields, and seem particularly fond of the company of cattle. They are often

kept in cages, and learn to whistle some tunes, and even to pronounce words and sentences. The meadow-lark of the U. States is a species of sturnus, but it differs widely, in its habits and appearance, from the European starling; the hill, however, is similar in form.

It

SPOTTED FEVER. An epidemic disease, now generally recognised by the name of spotted fever, prevailed extensively in many parts of New England, and in some parts of several of the other American states, at different times between the years 1806 and 1815. A few cases of the disease occurred in Medfield, Massachu setts, about thirty miles south-west of Boston, in March, 1806. The number was small, however, not exceeding twen ty, and the disease did not extend itself so as to attract general attention until the following year. In March and April, 1807, it appeared in Hartford, Connecticut, and in several other places on the Connecticut river; and also in Williamstown, in the north-western part of Massachu setts, on the Green mountain range. It disappeared during the summer, but returned the following winter, visiting, in some instances, the same places, besides many others in the same neighborhoods and similar situations, and also attacking other and detached parts of New England. The disease followed a similar course for several succeeding years. disappeared during the summer, and recurred with the return of winter; and for several years, until 1813, it became, each year, more extensive and more destructive. In some of these years, it also prevailed extensively in the interior of the states of New York and Pennsylvania. In 1812, the troops of the U. States' army suffered by it severely at various places in New York and Vermont. After 1813, the disease rapidly diminished, although it still remained destructive, especially in some parts of Maine. It finally ceased in the spring of 1815. The last place visited by it, so far as our information extends, was Berwick, in Maine. There have, indeed, been occasional reports of the prev alence of a similar disease, at different times since that period; but it may well be doubted whether any of them actually refer to the true spotted fever as it prevailed from 1807 to 1815. This concise sketch of the progress of the epidemic shows that it prevailed much less in summer than in winter. In fact, it was only during a part of the colder season of the year that the disease raged the most severely. Unlike the ordinary typhus fever