least in many cases, appears from accurate observation of many experiments of this kind; and this circumstance is, moreover, remarkable, that the vibrations do not ensue unless the hand of a living person comes in immediate contact with the string. The bipolar cylinder consists of a body having two poles, and easily moved, as, for instance, a magnetic needle, or a cylindrical bar, of two different metals; any light cylindrical body, such as a quill with the feathers on, will serve. The diviner holds the cylinder in a perpendicular direction, between his thumb and forefinger, while with his other hand he touches some magnetic body, as, for instance, a metal. Under these circumstances, a slow, revolving motion of the cylinder takes place between the fingers, which likewise, as in the case of the pendulum, sometimes moves in a forward and sometimes in a retrograde direction, according to circumstances. (For the divining rod, see the article under that head.) The two ends of this rod are held in the hand, so that its curvature is inclined outwards. If the person who holds the rod possesses the powers of rhabdomancy, and touches the metallic or any other magnetic substance, or comes near them, a slow, rotatory motion of the rod ensues in different directions, according to particular circumstances; and, as in the other cases, no motion takes place without a direct or indirect contact with a living person. In the south of France, and in Switzerland, this art is frequently made use of under the name of metalloscope (the art of feeling or discovering metals), and of hydroscope (the art of feeling or discovering water). In the practice of this art, the direction, duration, and other circumstances, of the motion of the instruments, determine the quality, quantity, distance and situation of the subterranean substances, or the different sensations of different rhabdomantists, are taken into

account.

RHADAMANTHUS was the brother of Minos, the first lawgiver of Crete and the Grecian world. According to another tradition, Rhadamanthus himself laid the foundation of the Cretan code of laws, which his brother Minos only completed. He, probably, belonged to the family of Dorus (a descendant of Deucalion), whose son Tectamus, or Teutamus, went to Crete with his son Asterius (who was, probably, the father of Rhadamanthus and Minos), in that time of general emigration in Greece. Rhadamanthus, and Minos and acus, the progenitors of

Achilles, were the three judges, who administered justice to the dead at the entrance of the kingdom of spirits, near the throne of Pluto, continuing the occupation in which they had spent their earthly existence; for it was then the common opinion of the Greeks that the spirit, which arrived in the dark kingdom of Tartarus, strove to continue the business of life. The whole notion of Tartarus, however, in this view, was rather a philosophical allegory than a true mythus.

RHETIA included the two countries of Rhætia Proper and Vindelicia, which were afterwards separated under the names of Rhatia Prima and Secunda (First and Second Rhætia). The former, or Rhætia Proper (Rhatia Propria), extended from the Rhine to the Norican Alps, and from Italy to the borders of Vindelicia. It contained the rivers Rhine (Rhenus), Inn (Alnus), Adige (Athesis), and many smaller ones, and included the modern Vorarlberg and Tyrol, with a part of the country of the Grisons. At an earlier period, the Etrurians, under their leader Rhætus, took possession of this mountainous region; but, being afterwards driven out by the increasing power of the Gauls, they went to Italy, where they played a conspicuous part in its early civilization. Justin, Pliny and Stephen the Byzantine, therefore, called the Rhætians an Etrurian race. (See Etruria.) Among the Gauls who subsequently occupied this country, the Brenni are more distinguished by name than by importance. The Romans planted colonies here as in the other provinces; among which Tridentum (Trent), Bellunum (Belluno), Bauzanum (Bolzano), Bilitio (Bellinzona), Clavenna (Chiavenna), and Curia (Coire), were the principal.

Several of these cities, however, were only indebted to the Romans for their extension and embellishment. The Rhætians repeatedly laid waste the Roman territories, in conjunction with the Gauls, and Augustus, therefore, sent his step-son Drusus against them. The latter defeated them (16 B. C.) near Trent; but as this victory was not decisive, he undertook, with his brother Tiberius, a second campaign, in which Tiberius attacked the Vindelici from lake Constance, while Drusus advanced against the Rhætians by land. In this expedition, the Romans were victorious, and both countries were made Roman provinces. Rhætia Transdanubiana,the country on the left bank of the Danube, was well known to the Romans, but never conquered by them. After the fall of the Roman pow

RHETIAN ALPS. (See Alps.) RHAMAZAN, or RAMADAN; the ninth month in the Turkish year. As the Mohammedans reckon by lunar time, it begins each year eleven days later than in the preceding year, so that in thirty-three years it occurs successively in all the seasons. In this month the Mohammedans have their great fast daily, from sunrise to sunset. This fast and the Bairam (q. v.) feast, which immediately follows it, are the two principal Mohammedan festivals. RHAPSODY (from the Greek) was originally a series of poetical effusions, which, though separate, yet had still a connexion with each other, as, for example, the poems of Homer. (q. v.) Those wandering minstrels among the ancient Greeks, who sang the poems of Homer (these were also called Homerides), or their own composition, were called rhapsodists. They derived their name, according to some, from the staff which they carried in their hand; according to Pindar, however, they were thus named from their connecting together many detached pieces of poetry. At present, we understand by rhapsody, a collection of poetical effusions, descriptions, &c., strung together, without any necessary connexion.

RHEA. The older deities of the Greek mythology are enveloped in such a mist, that we often find the mythuses of different ages and people combined together, as is the case with the mythological accounts of Rhea and Cybele. (q. v.) Rhea was a Titanide, and of Grecian origin, while Cybele was of Phrygian derivation; they were first confounded, probably, in Crete, on account of the similarity of their attributes. Still the evidences of their independent origin are visible; and, although we are acquainted with the mythus of Cybele only through that of Rhea, yet the latter was finally swallowed up by the former. Rhea, one of the most distinguished of the Titanides (see Titan), was the sister and wife of Saturn, and with him a symbol of the first creation. Rhea, the Flowing (from peev to flow), is the symbol of the struggle between chaos and order. The former is yet superior; by the side of Rhea is Saturn, jealous of the new forms, and annihilating them at the moment of their creation-the symbol of alldevouring time. But in the end, order must prevail; the decisive moment has arrived; by the advice of Gaia, her mother, Rhea gives a stone, instead of her infant, to her husband Saturn, who, terrified by

lowed his children at the moment of birth. She thus saves from destruction three sons and three daughters, Jupiter, Vesta, Ceres, Juno, Neptune and Pluto, the new inhabitants of Olympus, and overthrows her own power. She continued to retain the power of prophecy; and some traces of her were preserved in the mysteries, in which, however, she was confounded with Cybele. As the preserver of the future sovereign of gods and men, she was the symbol of the productive power of nature, the preserving and life-giving principle of the world. Her attributes, as the tamer of lions, which are harnessed to her chariot, and as the companion of Bacchus, and her crown of turrets, point to the same symbol. Her worship was the rudest form of natural religion, and was attended with the greatest excesses of licentiousness and cruelty.

RHEA, Sylvia, lived about 800 B. C., and was the daughter of Numitor, king of Alba, in Italy. Although a vestal virgin, from the embrace of Mars, she brought forth twins, Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.

RHEIMS, or REIMS (Remi); a city of France, department of the Marne, ninety miles north-east of Paris; lat. 49° 14' north; lon. 4°2′ east; population 38,000. Rheims is a very old town: the streets are, in general, broad and regular, the houses well built, and there are numerous large gardens. It contains some remarkable public buildings, among which are the hôtel de ville, finished in 1825; a magnificent cathedral of the twelfth century, one of the finest monuments of the kind in France, with a portal of great beauty; and the church of St. Remy, in which was preserved the holy oil used in the consecration of the kings. (See Ampulla.) The coronation of the French kings from the time of Philip Augustus (1179) to Charles X (1825), with the exception of Henry IV, crowned at Chartres, Napoleon, crowned at Paris, and Louis XVIII, who was not crowned at all, took place in the cathedral of Rheims (see Coronation); but this expensive ceremony was abolished in 1830. This town was the scene of some hard fighting between the French and Russians, in 1814. The latter took possession of Rheims, March 12, but were driven out by Napoleon, then on his march from Laon, on the 13th, with the loss of their general, St. Priest, and 2000 men. (See Châtillon, Congress of.)

RHEINGAU; a part of the duchy of Nassau, along the right bank of the Rhine,

about five leagues long. It is well peopled, and produces some of the choicest Rhenish wines. (q. v.) Gau is a German word, signifying district.

RHENISH CONFEDERATION. (See Confederation of the Rhine.)

RHENISH OF RHINLAND FOOT; equal to 1.023 English, or 24 Rhenish equal to 25 English. (See Measures, vol. viii, page 366.)

RHENISH WINES; the finest wines of Germany. The vines on the Rhine were planted in the third century, under the emperor Probus. According to a still existing tradition, Charlemagne transplanted the first vine in the Rheingau (q. v.) from Orleans. The Rheingau is the true country of the Rhenish wines. The best are those of Assmannshausen (chiefly red), Rüdesheim, Rottländer, Hinterhäuser, Geissenheim, Johannisberg (q. v.), the best of all, of which a bottle of the first quality, in ordinary seasons, costs, on the spot, from four to five florins, and Hattenheim (called Markebrunner). Besides the wines of the Rheingau, the following are good Rhenish wines: on the left bank, the Nierensteiner, Liebfrauenmilch (translated, Our Lady's Milk), a mild wine growing near Worms, Laubenheimer, Bacheracher; on the right bank, Hochheimer. Among these wines, the Laubenheimer and Assmannshäuser are the most agreeable; the Hochheimer, Johannisberger and Geissenheimer, the most aromatic; the Nierensteiner, Markebrunner, Bacheracher and Rüdesheimer, the strongest and most fiery. Among the best vintages are those of 1748, 1760, 1762, 1766, 1776, 1779, 1780, 1781, and more particularly those of 1783 and 1811; also that of 1822. Rhenish wines improve much with age, and continue improving longer than any other wines. Some wine-cellars, as that of the city of Bremen, have Rhenish wine above 150 years old. (See also Hock, and Moselle Wines.)

RHETORIC is the art of clothing the thoughts in the most agreeable and suitable form, to produce persuasion, to excite the feelings, to communicate pleasure. Speech is addressed to the understanding, the will and the taste; it treats of the true, the beautiful and the good; and is, therefore, didactic, critical, and pathetic or practical. These different objects are often united in the same work, which, therefore, partakes of all the three characters above mentioned, but, at the same time, one or the other character so far prevails as to give a predominant temper to the whole. In a narrower sense, rhet

oric is the art of persuasive speaking, or the art of the orator, which teaches the composition and delivery of discourses intended to move the feelings or sway the will of others. These productions of the rhetorical art are designed to be pronounced, in the presence of hearers, with appropriate gesture and declamation; and they often, therefore, require a different style of composition and arrangement from those works which are intended for readers, or simply to be read and not oratorically declaimed, and which are embraced in the jurisdiction of rhetoric in its widest sense. The Romans distinguished three kinds of eloquence-the demonstrative, occupied with praise or blame, and addressed to the judgment; the deliberative, which acts upon the will and the inclinations by persuasion or dissuasion; and the judicial or forensic, which is used in defending or attacking. The Greeks divided discourses according to their contents as relating to precepts (Aoyous), manners (0), and feelings (nan), and as, therefore, calculated to instruct, to please, and to move a division easily reconcilable with the former. The Romans had, also, a corresponding division into the genus dicendi tenue, mediocre and sublime. Another division of eloquence, founded on the subject to which it relates, is into academical, sacred (pulpit eloquence) and political. The two latter only allow of the lofty flights of eloquence. In the wider sense, as above explained, rhetoric treats of prose composition in general, whether in the form of historical works, philosophical dissertations, practical precepts, dialogues, or letters, and, therefore, includes the consideration of all the qualities of prose composition, purity of style, structure of sentences, figures of speech, &c.; in short, of whatever relates to clearness, preciseness, elegance and strength of expression. In the narrower sense of rhetoric, as the art of persuasive speaking, it treats of the invention and disposition of the matter. The latter includes the arrangement of the parts, which are the exordium or introduction, narration (when necessary), proposition and division, proof or refutation, and conclusion or peroration, and the elocution, which relates to the style, and requires elegance, purity and precision. The delivery, or pronunciation, also falls here. Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian are the principal writers on rhetoric among the ancients; and the most valuable English works on this subject, are Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, Blair's Lectures

on Rhetoric, and the Elements of Rhetoric by Whately (now archbishop of Dublin).

RHETORICIANS and GRAMMARIANS. 1st. Those who were skilled in language were called, by the ancient Greeks and Romans, grammarians, or philologists. Their studies embraced every kind of literary productions (yeaupa, writing), and whatever might be necessary to illustrate and explain them. But the grammarians, who were called also, at first, critics, and by the Romans literati, occupied themselves chiefly with the explanation and criticism of the earlier poets. They were distinguished from the grammatists (grammatista, literatores) by deeper and more extensive erudition; the grammatists treating mainly of the elements and rudiments of knowledge. We find the first examples of scientific researches into language among the sophists, who, in the age of Pericles, practised themselves in their schools, in the explanation of the poets, and particularly Homer, for the purpose of cultivating the taste, and exercising the critical powers; and their ingenuity was principally occupied upon difficulties of their own raising. By this practice, they taught their pupils to examine the laws of language accurately, and observe them carefully. Some of the scholars of Socrates, especially Plato, also distinguished themselves by their illustrations of the poets. Aristotle, who is called the founder of criticism and grammar, made a revision of the Homeric poems for Alexander the Great, and attempted to purify them from interpolations. Before him, however, Pisistratus is related to have arranged the poems of Homer (q. v.), in the order in which they now stand, and Cynæthus of Chios, Antimachus of Colophon, Theagenes of Rhegium, and some others, had occupied themselves with the interpretation of Homer. But although some individuals had turned their attention particularly to the explanation, or the emendation, of the ancient authors, the science of language and criticism was carried to much greater perfection by the Alexandrian scholars. After Alexandria had become the seat of science, the rules of the Greek language, the laws of the interpretation of authors, and the explanation of mythology, the rules for the determination of the various readings, and the particular merits of separate passages, or whole books, became subjects of study. The age of the Alexandrian grammarians (see Alexandrian School) is, therefore, the first period in the history of the ancient gram

marians: they decided the relative rank of the authors who were to be considered as models of taste, revised some of their works, illustrated them with various researches, unravelled and explained mythology, composed lexicons upon individuals or upon bodies of authors, collected the rules of grammar, and judged the faults and merits of writings, which is the province of the higher criticism. To refer to remarks of different kinds upon the margins of the books, the grammarians made use of critical marks and signs. Different signs were used for different authors. Among the grammarians of this age, Didymus of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Augustus, deserves to be mentioned as a critic: he was surnamed xadκEvтEpos (Ironsides), because he wrote 4000 books. The second period embraces the period of the New Platonists, who considered these objects of inquiry important enough to occupy their attention. The critics and grammarians of this age generally turned their attention more to the thoughts of authors and the contents of their works, than to the explanation of words or the laws of language. In all of them, the spirit of their scientific system, founded upon religion, is apparent; few of them penetrated the peculiar character of Grecian antiquity. This period commences with Plutarch of Chæronea (A. D. 100), to whom some critical and grammatical" writings are attributed, which are, however, unworthy of him. The third period embraces those grammarians, mostly monks, who diligently compiled from the ancient authors, collected dictionaries from different writings, gave rules for preserving the purity of the Attic dialect from individual authors, or made annotations on the margins of manuscripts. Many grammatical works of this age are yet extant, in judging of the intrinsic value and utility of which, not only the qualifications of their authors, but more particularly the purity of the sources whence they drew, must be taken into consideration. This period includes those Greeks, who, fleeing from their country, first revived a taste for the study of Greek in Italy, at the end of the fourteenth, and particularly in the fifteenth century. Some collections of the Greek grammarians were made in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, among which the Cornucopia et Hortus Adonidis (Venice, 1496, folio), and Alexander Heladius's Gleanings of the Greek language, are worthy of notice. Neither Grecian literature, in general, nor grammatical studies, were cultivated by

the earlier Romans; they were looked upon by the multitude as a waste of time, and by patriots, as hurtful to morals, while the state was yet rude and warlike, and the want of a more refined taste was not yet felt. But acquaintance with the Greeks attracted the attention of many to this subject, and some of the most distinguished men-Scipio Africanus and Caius Lælius, for example-encouraged the cultivation of Grecian learning. The first Roman teachers of grammar, Livius Andronicus and Ennius (B. C. 236-166), who were in part of Grecian descent, and wrote both in prose and poetry, made translations from some Greek authors. A general taste for philological learning, and the auxiliary sciences, among the Romans, was promoted by the mission of the Greek critic and grammarian Crates of Mallus, a contemporary of Aristarchus, to the Roman senate, as ambassador of king Attalus Philadelphus, soon after the death of Ennius (B. C. 170): during his long residence there, he delivered lectures from time to time, and his lessons awakened, among the Romans, a disposition to imitate the example of the Greeks. As Grecian science became the standard to which the Romans attempted to conform, the latter preserved, in its full extent, the Grecian idea of the science of language, and the Roman dialect of the Latin language became, under the influence of the Grecian, the language of books, and of the cultivated classes. The grammatical studics became so popular, that the most distinguished men wrote upon them; and there always continued to be schools of reputation in Rome. The teachers received very high prices for tuition; and Marcus Scaurus gave about 16,000 dollars for a learned slave, Lutatius Daphnis, and soon after set him at liberty; and Lucius Apuleius received a salary of nearly 10,000 dollars a year, from a rich Roman knight, for his lessons. The study of grammar was likewise diligently prosecuted in the provinces, and some of the most distinguished teachers were in Gaul. With the increase of literary works in the Roman language, increasing attention was paid to the primitive Latin tongue, and to Roman literature and antiquity. Suetonius devoted a particular treatise to the oldest Latin grammarians, in which he gives accounts of their lives and writings. The extant writings of the later Latin grammarians are to be found in the collection of Elias Putsch (Hanau, 1605, 4to.). Vespasian and Adrian confirmed to the grammarians the privilege of exemption from 2

VOL. XI.

civil services and burdens. Private citizens also took an interest in the schools, and supported them at their own expense. As, in the earliest times, instruction in grammar and music was given by the same person, the ancient grammarians also gave lessons in rhetoric; and many are distinguished as authors in both departments. Even after the sciences had become distinct, the grammarians still continued to teach some of the elementary branches of rhetoric, and, in earlier times, orators passed directly from the school of a grammarian to take part in judicial proceedings.-2d. Instructers in eloquence were called rhetoricians among the Greeks; and they also bore the same name, or that of professors (professores), among the early Romans. The invention of rhetoric is ascribed by the Ægyptians and poets to Thoth, Hermes, or Mercury, as, in ancient times, the mental powers and operations, in general, were looked upon as something divine. Pittheus, the uncle of Theseus, is said to have first taught this art at Træzene, in the temple of the Muses, and to have composed a treatise upon it; but this, at so early a time, is incredible. Some consider Empedocles (B. C. 444) as the inventor of rhetorie, of which he may have laid the first foundation; others, Corax and Tisias of Sicily, who first reduced the rules of rhetoric to writing, when, in consequence of a revolution there, many disputes arose concerning property, and the want of a style of speaking suitable for courts of justice was much felt. Some ascribe the invention of rhetoric to Gorgias of Leontium, in Sicily, a pupil of Einpedocles, as he was the first who made use of the artificial figures and forms of speech. Others have recognised Aristotle as the inventor of rhetoric, who, in fact, first gave it a scientific form. We find two sects of rhetoricians mentioned, the Apollodorians and Theodorians, so called from Apollodorus of Pergamus, who was the teacher of the emperor Augustus at Apollonia, and from Theodorus, to whose lessons the emperor Tiberius is said to have attended at Rhodes. The object of Grecian rhetoric was to represent every thing so as to give it the appearance of plausibility and truth. Before Aristotle, the sophists, the successors of Zeno, the Eleatic, in dialectics, were teachers of eloquence: arrogant, vain, avaricious, and selfish, they endeavored to win admiration by their dexterity in speaking on all questions, even without preparation, and to gain influence by the acts of persuasion, at a time when wealth,