THIS division of the Holy Scriptures comprises Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon. Some portions of these are earlier in date, and others later, than many parts of the historical books; but they are classed together as being almost wholly in Hebrew verse. They are not, however, the only poetical books of Scripture; for the writings of the Prophets are also, for the most part, in this form.

The chief excellence of the Hebrew poetry is undoubtedly to be found in the sublime sentiments and the great moral and spiritual truths by which it is pervaded. It possesses also the elevation of style, the emphatic collocation of words, the animation and richness of thought, and the force and delicacy of feeling, which distinguish the best poetry of all languages; and, like Eastern poetry in general, it surpasses that of the Western world in the boldness of its figures and metaphors.

Hebrew poetry, being of comparatively limited extent, does not present so many varieties as are to be found in other literature; but three species are clearly distinguishable:-1. Lyrical. Its earliest productions, like those of other nations, seem to have been of this class, the expressions of excited feeling, which were intended to be sung with musical accompaniment (see Exod. xv. 1-18; Judg. v.) Of this kind are the greater part of the Psalms, the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the Song of Solomon. 2. Didactic poetry; of which species are the books of Job, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and some of the Psalms. And, 3. Prophetic poetry; comprising the writings of the sixteen Prophets.

As to the external form of Hebrew poetry, and the laws which governed its construction, various opinions have been held at different periods. It was at one time supposed to consist of syllabic metres similar to those of the Greek and Roman poets; but this theory was based upon a partial examination, and has been proved to be altogether inapplicable to the poetry of the Hebrew Scriptures in general. It is equally certain that rhyme did not usually enter into its composition, though some of the poets evidently delighted in the occasional occurrence of similar sounds: and it is now generally agreed that its chief external characteristic is PARALLELISM or verse-rhythm, which consists in such an arrangement of the words composing the sentence, or verse, that when complete it resolves itself into two or more symmetrical members, generally of nearly equal length, between which there is a certain relation of resemblance, correpondence, or contrast, either as to thought or language, or both. The juxtaposition in which the several proposiions, or sets of ideas, are thus placed, is capable of being beautifully modified by poetical art. In the simplest onstruction of the parallelism, the first member, forming he rise of the verse, is succeeded by its counterpart which orms the fall. Sometimes the second member is an echo r an expansion of the first, expressing the same sentinents in a varied form. In other cases, the proposition eing too long for one member is extended through two r more, the first breaking off abruptly at an important art of the sentence (as in Psa. cx. 5); or an accessory entence is subjoined in a second member (as in Psa. xli. 10); or, to deepen the impression, the main idea is xpressed in contrast or in comparison with some other. t is worthy of notice, that this peculiar characteristic of [ebrew poetry is one which is not lost in translation, nd is therefore specially valuable in a book designed to e published in all the languages of the earth.

Different classifications of this poetical parallelism have been proposed. The following, which is substantially that of bishop Lowth, is given not as the best, but as the one most generally adopted.

1. The first kind is that in which the responsive, or second clause, repeats the first with some diversity of words or thought. This is denominated by Lowth synonymous, because the two lines frequently correspond one to another by expressing the same sense in different but equivalent terms.' It is called by others cognate, as expressing the close relationship, without absolute identity, between the two members of the sentence; and by others, again, gradational, as describing the progression of thought or expression which is often observable in the second clause. This species of parallelism is the most frequent of all. It prevails chiefly in the Psalms, and shorter poems. The following are examples. Psa. xix. 1:

The heavens declare the glory of God:
And the firmament showeth his handywork.
Psa. cxii. 1:

Blessed is the man that feareth Jehovah,

That delighteth greatly in his commandments.

2. A second form of parallelism is the antithetic; in which the idea contained in the second clause is contrasted with that in the first, either in expression or in sense. This is found mostly in the book of Proverbs.

3. A third form is the synthetic, or constructive; in which a new thought is added in the second member of the verse, which yet is so expressed that it corresponds in form with the first; the parallelism in this case being merely rythmical, and not one of meaning. As examples, see Job iii. 3-9; Psa. cxlviii. 7—13; Isa. i. 5—9; Íviii. 5-8. This kind of parallelism occurs very frequently in the Scriptures, especially in the Prophets.

There are numerous parallel triplets, both of the synonymous and the synthetic class as Psa. i. 1; lxvii. 18, 19; xciii. 3, 4. There are also many double parallelisms of all the three classes: as Psa. xxxvii. 1, 2; ciii. 11, 12; Prov. xi. 24; Isa. i. 3, 19, 20; ix. 10; Hab. iii. 17, 18. In stanzas of four lines, sometimes the members have an alternate correspondence, the first line answering to the third, and the second to the fourth: as in Psa. xxxiii. 13, 14; xl. 7; xliv. 3; Isa. i. 15; ix. 10; xxx. 16.

Each kind of parallelism admits many subordinate varieties; and, in combinations of verses, the several kinds are perpetually intermingled; circumstances which at once enliven and beautify the composition, and frequently give peculiar distinctness and precision to the train of thought.'-Jebb.

The parallelism affords important aid in interpretation by exhibiting the salient points of the passage in their true relation. It is especially useful where the construction is complicated or elliptical, or where uncommon words occur, as one member of a sentence which is clear contributes much towards determining the sense of another which is ambiguous.

Another artificial form which sometimes appears in Hebrew poetry is an alphabetical arrangement, the initial letters of the successive lines or stanzas following the order of the letters of the alphabet. This is found in Psa. xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., exi., cxii., cxix., exlv.; in Lam. i.-iv; and in Prov. xxxi. 10-31. This device was perhaps intended to assist the memory: it is found chiefly in poems consisting of detached sentiments.

THE book of Job derives its name from the venerable patriarch on whose eventful history it is founded. It presents many interesting subjects of inquiry, some of which are confessedly difficult and obscure. Only the more important of these will be briefly noticed here.

That Job was a real person, and that the events of his life here narrated actually occurred, may be inferred from the manner in which he is spoken of in other passages of Scripture (Ezek. xiv. 14; James v. 11): and this conclusion is sustained by the particular details given of persons, places, etc.

The country in which Job dwelt is not easily determined Some consider it to have been in Idumea, or Arabia Deserta; others fix it in Mesopotamia.

a

We have still greater difficulty in ascertaining the time at which Job lived. Many circumstances, however, lead us to conclude that it was before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. Some suppose it to have been at a still earlier period, even before the age of Abraham. In support of this opinion it is alleged :that, (1.) The long life of Job, extending to two hundred years, agrees only with the lives of the patriarchs between Peleg and Abraham. (2.) The manners and customs described are those of the earliest ages. (3.) The religion of Job, requiring sacrifice, but without distinct priesthood or sacred place, is such as prevailed in patriarchal times. (4.) The worship of the sun and moon is the only form of idolatry spoken of (ch. xxxi. 26-28), and this was unquestionably the most ancient. (5.) There is no allusion to the Mosaic law, or to the Divine interpositions on behalf of the Israelites in their deliverance from Egypt and their journey to Canaan; which are constantly used by the other sacred writers to illustrate the character and government of Jehovah. (6.) Neither is there any reference to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, which, as a direct and signal judgment of the Almighty occurring in this vicinity, would hardly have been omitted in an argument of this kind. Some, on the other hand, think that they have detected allusions to the overthrow of the cities of the plain (ch. xv. 34; xviii. 13; xx. 26); and adduce the coincidence of many names occurring in this book with those of some of Abraham's descendants through Ishmael and Esau as indications of a rather later age. It is worthy of notice, that, if Job lived between the deluge and the call of Abraham, we have an additional proof that God has never left the world without witnesses to his truth.

Considerable difference of opinion has prevailed also respecting the author of this book. Some have supposed that it was written by Job himself, or by Elihu; others have ascribed it to Moses; whilst some eminent critics, on account of certain peculiarities of language and style, as compared with those of some other Hebrew poems, regard it as the production of an inspired poet about the time of Solomon: but it appears, upon the whole, more probable that it was written not very long after the events occurred. Whoever may have been its author, we have sufficient evidence of its Divine authority from the testimony borne by our Lord and his apostles to the inspiration of the whole collection of the Old Testament, in which it was included. See General Preface, p. iv.

The poetical form, in which the greater part of this book is written, was most in accordance with the genius of the country and of the age of Job, and afforded an opportunity for expressing the sentiments of the speakers in the most terse, beautiful, and impressive manner.

The book opens with a description of the character and sufferings of the patriarch. He is a man of large possessions, highly honoured by all who know him, and of unimpeachable uprightness before God. Satan having

asserted that his religion is mere selfishness, is permitted to deprive him of his children, and of all his pos sessions. The faith of the patriarch, however, sustains him under every trial. To the loss of property, and to domestic bereavements, is then added the infliction of a most painful and loathsome disease. Still Job keeps his integrity, and piously submits to God's chastening hand. In this state of things, three of his friends come to condole with him. The overwhelming calamities which have come upon so good a man appear to confound them. His case is contrary to all their views and maxims with respect to God's way of dealing with the righteous; and when he breaks out into the language of complaint and despair, cursing the day of his birth, and implying that God acted arbitrarily in sending afflictions, they come at once to the conclusion, that, so far from being upright and holy, as they had supposed, he must be a wicked man and a hypocrite. This, therefore, originates an important discussion with reference to the principles on which the Divine government in this world is conducted; whether a life of piety is not invariably attended with prosperity, and whether extraordinary sufferings are not demonstrative of corresponding guilt.

Eliphaz leads the way in the argument, and is fellowed by his two companions. They hold that there is s strict retribution in the present life, and that it is reasonable to infer what a man's character is, from the present dealings of God with him; and they insinuate that Job's extraordinary calamities must be a punishment for peculiar wickedness. They reprove him for impatience and irreverent complaints of God; and exhort him to repentance and reformation as a certain means of regaining his former prosperity.

Job replies to each of the speakers, boldly denying their charges. He maintains that God, in distributing good and evil, acts according to his sovereign pleasure, and that prosperity and adversity are no evidence of character; and appeals to indisputable facts in proef of the long life and success of the wicked. He complains bitterly of the treatment of his friends, who, instead of offering him consolation, aggravate his distress by false accusations; and expresses his earnest desire to carry his cause at once before God, in whom he still confides.

His friends are greatly offended at his sentiments, and attempt to vindicate the conduct of God towards him repeating their charges with increasing warmth and asperity, and even accusing him of particular crimes. But the more they press their arguments, the more confidently does Job assert his innocence, and appeal to God to vindicate his character; until they are reduced to silence.

Elihu then, who appears to have been an attentive listener, comes forward to reason with Job. His leading principle is, that afflictions are for the good of the sufferer, and that, if the afflicted hearken to the counsel which God thus sends, and turn from their sins, they will ind their sufferings to be sources of great benefit. He re proves Job for justifying himself rather than God; and vindicates the character and government of the Most High. To illustrate his views, and to show the necessity of submission, he concludes with a sublime description of the greatness and majesty of God.

After this, the Lord himself addresses Job; not condescending to enter into any particular explanation of his conduct; but, from the consideration of his infinite and unsearchable wisdom and greatness, as seen even in the works of creation and providence, convincing Job cổ presumption, ignorance, and guilt, in arraigning the dispensations of his providence.

Job, subdued and humbled, confesses that he is vile. His confession is accepted, and his general course approved

His three friends are rebuked; Job is directed to make ntercession for them; and prosperity is heaped upon him more largely than ever.

Whilst the course and result of the argument are sufciently clear, the object of the book has long been a ubject of controversy. Perhaps the following remarks may set this in the right point of view. In asserting hat the religion of one of the best of men was only a refined selfishness, 'the accuser of the brethren' had impugned the fundamental principle of true piety. God, Eherefore, permits this to be put to the severest test by the removal of everything that could be supposed to have produced a mercenary religion; and the result is, that Satan's falsehood is completely refuted. For whilst Job too passionately maintains his innocence of those egreious sins with which his friends had erroneously connected his unusual sufferings, and thus loses some of the consolation which he might have enjoyed, he is so far from turning away from God, and renouncing the desire of his favour, that he only asks to obtain from him a hearing, fully assured that the Judge of all the earth' will do right,' and that it shall ultimately be well with those who trust in him (ch. xix. 23-26). Herein Job speaks of Him the thing that is right,' and in the end is accepted and honoured as a true believer (ch. xlii. 7, 8). Thus the nature and power of confiding faith in God are illustrated, and it is shown that the principle of real piety was the same under the patriarchal dispensation as under those economies which are blessed with larger revelations of the Divine will.

In connection with this, believers in all ages are taught that in the most inscrutable acts of God's sovereignty, his Divine justice, wisdom, and love are engaged. So that however difficult it may sometimes be to discover why afflictions are sent, the righteous ought to bear them with patient resignation, and to maintain unimpaired their confidence in the all-wise Disposer of events, who sends such trials in mercy, and will give to them a happy issue. Behold,' says the apostle James, we count them happy which endure. Ye have heard of the patience of Job, and have seen the end of the Lord; that the Lord is very pitiful, and of tender mercy.'

We are also warned against hastily judging our brethren, and reminded of the bad effects of warm controversies on religious subjects. Job and his friends, though all pious men, disputed till they became angry, censured and condemned each other, departed in opposite directions from the truth, and uttered many irreverent things about the

Divine character and government. They lost their temper, and would have lost their labour, and have been more at variance than ever, if the controversy had not been decided by the intervention of the highest authority.

This book also shows the opinions which prevailed, in the early ages of the world, on an important question connected with the Divine government, which often tried the faith of believers (see Psa. lxxiii.; John ix. 2): why the good are afflicted, and the wicked are often prosperous. And while we see, on the one hand, the great superiority of the views of Divine Providence here expressed to anything which can be found in the writings of the Greek and Roman sages, we see also, on the other, how much cause we have for gratitude on account of the clearer and fuller revelation we enjoy.

It should be observed, that, although the inspiration of the book of Job is undoubted, it is clear that when he or his friends utter erroneous opinions, or argue incorrectly by drawing wrong inferences from right principles, we are not to consider their sentiments as the voice of inspiration. Their arguments and expressions must be compared with the law of God, and with the nature of true religion as exhibited in other portions of God's word, and especially as manifested in the example and spirit of Him who was the only perfect Being who ever appeared in our nature.

GENERAL ANALYSIS OF THE BOOK.

I. The HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION in prose (ch. i., ii.) II. The ARGUMENT or CONTROVERSY in poetry, in five divisions.

1. The first series of the controversy, comprising Job's complaint (ch. iii.); speech of Eliphaz (iv., v.); answer of Job (vi., vii.); speech of Bildad (viii.); answer of Job (ix., x.); speech of Zophar (xi.); answer of Job (xii.-xiv.)

2. The second series, consisting of the speech of Eliphaz (ch. xv.); answer of Job (xvi., xvii.); speech of Bildad (xviii.); answer of Job (xix.); speech of Zophar (xx.); answer of Job (xxi.)

3. The third series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz (ch. xxii.); answer of Job (xxiii., xxiv.); speech of Bildad (xxv.); answer of Job (xxvi.-xxxi.) 4. The speech of Elihu (ch. xxxii.—xxxvii.) 5. The close of the discussion, by the address of the Almighty (ch. xxxviii.-xli.); and Job's response and penitential confession (xlii. 1—6).

III. The CONCLUSION in prose (ch. xlii. 7-17).

4

6

of their milk.

4 Heb., 'sons of the East; an expression often used in Scripture to denote the inhabitants of Arabia, eastward of Palestine.

5 These were periodical family festivals held in each other's houses; perhaps on their respective birthdays.

a Ge. 10. 23: 22. 20.21, Huz; Jer. 25. 20.

bEze. 14. 14; Jam. 5.

11.

ver. 8; ch. 2. 3: 2
11, 12: Gr. 69; 17.
12 K. 20. 3; Lk.
1. 6.

d Pro. 8, 13; 16 6
eh. 42. 13.
fch. 42. 12.

ch. 29. 9, 10, 25

A Ge. 35. 2; .x. 19. 10: 18 m. 16 5 ich. 42. 8; Ge. 8. 20; Ex. 18 12.

* Ge. 6.5; 1 Ki. 21. 10, 13; Jer. 17. 9; Mk. 7. 21-23. ich. 2. 1.

ch. 38 7; 1 Ki. 22. 19 Ps. 104. 4.

"Ps. 103. 20; Mt. 18. 10.

6 The sisters lived, according to the custom of the East, with their mother.

7 Or, 'prepared them to offer sacrifice.' See refs. Job feared that their festivity might have thrown his sons off their guard, leading them perhaps to forget God while enjoying his bounties.

8 The word here used commonly means to bless; hence sometimes to dismiss, and probably to forget or renounce. So in ver. 11, and ch. ii. 5, 9.

9 Sometimes called 'saints' (holy ones); more generally angels' (messengers). The first name refers to