useful man. Joan Van Oldenbarneveldt was a lawyer, distinguished by his wisdom, patriotism, and moderation. His services led the nation through the war of independence, supported them under the presidency of William, and guided them even when Maurice was the Stadtholder. Whether it was the consequence of faction, or, as some say, the envy of Prince Maurice, this grey-headed lawyer was accused of high treason, having, it was alleged, received from the Spanish government a bribe to betray his people. The accusation was false; yet, after forty years of services to his country, he was publicly beheaded, amid the savage applause of a licentious mob. The dread of popular displeasure silenced all censure, but the event was not lost to the mind of Vondel. Greatly incensed at these democratic excesses, he composed satires, in which he most bitterly inveighed against this atrocious act. These satires were not published till many years after they were composed. But, not satisfied with this, he undertook to place his sentiments before the public in the form of a drama; and as it would have been dangerous to expose himself to the fury of the people, he concealed the object of his drama under the colour of an ancient event. At a later period of his life he himself furnished annotations, showing who were the personages he had represented. The subject chosen for this purpose was the life of Palamedes, whose lamentable end is well known to the classical scholar. It is thus represented by Vondel. Palamedes, the son of Nauplius, king of Eubea, had, by his wisdom, obtained such influence among the Greek princes that nothing was undertaken without his advice; and in the expedition against Troy he was unanimously appointed general and leader. When Ulysses feigned madness, and was ploughing the beach in order to avoid being called to take part in the expedition, Palamedes detected the cunning by laying his young son Telemachus before the plough. The father suddenly stopped fearing lest he should hurt his child. From that time Ulysses directed all his endeavours to effect the ruin of Palamedes, in which, he was joined by Agamemnon and Calchas, who had long since been jealous of his influence. They spread reports of treason, forged a letter in which Priam offered him a bribe; and Ulysses, having hidden some gold coins under his tent, which afterwards were brought forward as conclusive proof of his guilt, Palamedes was convicted of high treason and put to death. Many of the ancient authors lament his death. Virgil saysFando aliquod si forte tuas pervenit ad aures, Belidae nomen Palamedis et inclyta fama Gloria: quem falsa sub proditione Pelasgi Insontem infando indicio, quia bella vetabat Demisere neci: nunc cassum lumine lugent. In the representation of living personages by ancient myths sufficient opportunity is afforded for satirical allusions. Happy as was the selection of Vondel in representing his hero's misfortune under the name of Palamedes, not less successful was he in the execution of the drama. There, perhaps, does not exist a drama so rich in satire. Shortly after the death of Prince Maurice this drama was published, and the object of the piece was soon discovered. The author was summoned to appear before the High Court at the Hague; but he concealed himself in the house of his sister, who so little sympathised with him, that she told him, “He had better attend to his shop instead of writing books." "Sister," said he, " I'll tell these people some more truths" whereupon he composed some powerful satires, which, however, his sister succeeded in destroying. At that time every province in Holland was, as it were, an independent republic, and in conformity with their acknowledged right, the city of Amsterdam refused to give up Vondel, but fined him 300 florins (£25) for libel. Palamedes, like all his dramas, is entirely on the ancient model. All the unities are observed, chorusses are introduced, and strophes and antistrophes inserted between the acts. It contains scenes equal to any of the Greek dramas, such as Palamedes before the council maintaining his innocence, the description of his last moments, and several others, in which his character remains always the same, calm, conscious of his innocence, and confident of the support of the gods. Among the many dramas composed by Vondel, there is none so interesting to the English reader as his "Lucifer," the subject of which is thus described by the author. Lucifer, the chief of all angels, proud, ambitious, and selfish, envied God's unlimited power, and the excellence of man, who, being created in the image of God, governed in his paradise the whole of the earth. This envy was greatly increased when Gabriel, the herald of God, declared all the angels to be but the ministering spirits created to serve God, and to watch over man, and that a glorious future was reserved for Adam. He, therefore, endeavoured, through his agents, Belial and Beelzebub, to sow discontent among the angels, and, concealing his real intentions under the pretext of defending their rights, aroused numbers into open rebellion; and, notwithstanding the admonition and entreaties of Raphael, led on the rebellious host against Michael, the general of God. His object had been to become like unto God, and to shut out man from heaven; but his armies were defeated. Enraged at this defeat, he swore revenge, and subsequently seduced man into disobedience against God, for which act he and all his hosts were plunged into hell, and doomed to everlasting perdition. The scene is in heaven. The characters are:-Beelzebub, Belial, and Apollyon, rebel chiefs; Gabriel, God's herald; Lucifer, the chief; Luciferists, rebellious angels; Michael, general; Raphael, guardian angel; and Uriel, Michael's armour-bearer. It will be perceived from this brief outline that the contents of Vondel's "Lucifer" is identical with that of Milton's "Paradise Lost." Yet the former preceded the latter by fourteen years, which led some to suppose that it formed the basis of Milton's work. There are some grounds to justify such a conjecture. It is a notorious fact, that it was the original intention of Milton to execute his ideas in the form of a play, as Vondel had done; and, in comparing the two works, we discern a marked similarity in the speeches of the rebel angels. It is, moreover, worthy of remark that this is not the only subject on which both poets have treated; but that Vondel, as well as Milton, composed a drama on Sampson, both very similar in the execution. It is not improbable that the excitement caused in Amsterdam by the performance of "Lucifer" may have reached the ears of Milton, especially at a time when Holland and England came into frequent contact. If it be maintained that Milton, when he composed his poem, was not aware of the existence of such a work as "Lucifer"-as may not unreasonably be inferred from his introductory lines-we have to account in some other way for this coincidence, and this can only be in the circumstances of those times. At a time when law, right, and authority, were in continual collision, it is not improbable that the thinking patriots, unable to trace out the proper path, may have turned to the Bible for their guide, and may have found in the first history of man analagous circumstances in a higher sphere. It appears tolerably certain that such was the object of Vondel; and, as in " Palamedes," he may have concealed his political opinions under the guise of a celestial conflict. The rebellion of angels against their God, and the consequent ruin of man, is not an inappropriate representation of the opposition to law and authority so prevalent in his days, and the injury caused thereby to the innocent. If these same sentiments inspired Milton to compose Paradise Lost," his commentators may find another source of investigation, and draw from his poem his opinions on the grave questions that were agitated in his day. his 66 Before entering on the relative merits of Vondel and Milton, I will read to you an extract from the first act of "Lucifer;" and, however imperfect my translation may be, it will nevertheless convey an idea of our poet's style and genius. In this act, Apollyon having been sent by Lucifer to the earth, in order to furnish a strict account of Adam and of his happiness, returns, and, after a few introductory sentences, he is asked by BEELZEBUB-Tell us what thou beheld'st-we listen keenly. Sank through the ninefold sphery Universe, Whose orbs illimitably sprinkled whirl Amid their glowing centres-will I not Dilate on, but your curious appetites Appease. The wheel of thought revolves less fast O favoured portion of a gorgeous whole! A waterfall, the mother of four streams, Drooped down and settled on the mountain's brow, BEELZEBUB-Describe to us that region and its form. BELIAL APOLLYON I' th' midst the mountain rises. Bursting thence By river and by rill. The Onyxstone There sparkles, and the precious Bdellium glows In rich profusion. Little pebbly shores Breed starry gems in clusters and with foam, And e'en the very meadows seem to burn With veins of gold. What kind of atmosphere Floats where this new-wrought creature Man sustains Not a cherub fair Of our celestial host has sweeter breath Than the fresh spirit of health that revels there, Groves of thick leafiness, whose knobs and boughs His measure knows, and tempers so his beams Kernel and juice enrich the land together. Divulge more fully thy entreasured thoughts. APOLLYON Who would prefer to be of spiritual BELIAL Rather than corporal frame, when we behold Their proud authority all creatures stand Worshipped before him! Who, like Adam, could Omniscient? For he gave them all their names- Their vastness from the waters and adored him. I dwell not on what praise is sung to man, APOLLYON Of all the white-robed choir, no Seraph yet Has more entranced my gaze than Eve and Adam, |
